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LAWLER'S 

American Sanitary Plumbing 



A PRACTICAL WORK ON THE BEST 
METHODS OF 



MODERN PLUNIBINQ 



ILLUSTRATING, WITH ORIGINAL SKETCHES, THE FUNDAMENTAL 
PRINCIPLES OF 



EVERYTHING THE PLUMBER SHOULD KNOW 



BY 

JAMES J. LAWLER 

PLUMBING EXPERT 

Author of "Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting" ;..*" Domestic 



Hygienics," Etc. . ^^ ^^^^^6 



«- -f., 



NEW YORK 
EXCELSIOR PUBLISHING HOUSE 

T. J. CAREY & CO., Pkoprietors 
26 CITY H A- L Iv PLACE 

LONDON 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Limited 



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Copyright, 1896, by 
T. J. CAREY & CO. 

Entered at Stationers Hall, 
London, England. 




PREFACE. 

More than one-half the mistakes that are made by 
men in every walk of life can be avoided if they will 
only take the advice of others who have had experience. 
Life is too short for each one of us to find out by actual 
experience how this, that, and the other thing works. 
And besides, if we wish to keep up with the improve- 
ments which are constantly going on in every line of 
trade, we will have no time to spare for experiments. 

Therefore I am induced, after a practical experience 
of more than twenty years at the plumbing trade, to 
write this book, feeling satisfied that it will be of much 
use to the plumber who wishes to have a good practical 
knowledge of his business, and who has not had as much 
experience as the author. 



CONTENTS. 



A general talk on the different styles of water closets for 

house use 236 

A trip with the plumber through the house drain 181 

A word to the apprentice or plumber's helper 96 

Air chamber on pumps 75 

All waste pipes entering a house should be trapped 205 

All-copper bathtub, The 231 

Artesian well, The 52 

Automatic cellar drainer 295 

Back-air vent must not be sagged 267 

Bathroom and its finish. The 225 

Best and most sanitary water closets up to the present 

date, The 246 

Bored or artesian well. / » 71 

Calking soil pipe joints » 266 

Can tell when it is wash- day 220 

Care of the kitchen sink 201 

Cast-iron sectional tank, The 115 

Cast-iron enameled sink, The o 197 

Cause of syphonage in traps 276 

Cause of wet cellars, how they can be made dry 189 

Clean hot water from the boiler. How to have 130 

1 



CONTENTS 



FACE 



Cold water protects lead 1 14 

Compression bibbs 1 47 

Conditions necessary for a proper bathroom 226 

Connecting lead and traps to cast-iron soil pipe 269 

Connecting lead and iron pipe ir 3 

Crockery sink, The 1 98 

Cup joint, The 160 

Deep-well pump, The 66 

Double water-back connection 132 

Double boiler connection 1 33 

Drive- well pump, The 71 

Drive-well point, The , . 74 

Earthenware used in plumbing fixtures 292 

Effect of hot water on the tm-lined pipe, The 34 

Expansion of water. The 121 

Flange joint wiped with solder 163 

Freezing lead pipes to make repairs 299 

Fusing points of metals 32 

Grease traps for kitchen sinks. 211 

Hot-water circulation system for service pipes to the differ- 
ent fixtures ^ 141 

Hot-water supply. The 1 20 

How to build a cistern 89 

How to properly connect the range boiler 121 

How to prepare the ends of lead pipe to be soldered 1 59 

How to make soil 165 

How to make a practical outside water closet and connect it 

to the sewer 240 

How to locate leaks in water pipes under the ground 302 

How to tell whether the service pipe is partly closed or 
leaking 303 



CONTENTS 3 



PAGE 



How and where to locate the cesspool ... 51 

How to clear the slime from the service pipe 306 

Hydraulics of plumbing 34 

Hydraulic ram and its principles, The 81 

Hydraulic ram, Description of the 84 

Imperfect circulation. The cause of 125 

Indirect or tank supply system , 107 

Kind of lead to use for calking, The 267 

Kind of pipe to use for back-air ventilation 276 

Laundry and its fixtures, The 217 

Lawler's system of hot-water circulation for kitchen boilers.. 136 

Lawler's system explained 139 

Lead and iron water pipes for domestic purposes 23 

Lead branch joint, The 171 

Lead-lined tank. The 112 

Lead waste pipe 210 

Lift pump. The 59 

Local vent, The 251 

Metals and their physical properties 119 

Music in water pipes. The cause of , 145 

Never make a laundry of the kitchen 219 

Newly-discovered metals of uncertain properties 118 

No excuse for imperfect work 238 

Noise from the tank and closet valves 153 

One of the first jobs of plumbing 98 

Open kitchen sinks 198 

Other kinds of bathtubs 230 

Other kinds of wells 52 

Overflow from the cistern, The 93 

Overflow pipe from the tank 117 

Plug-cock bibbs , ,,,.., 1 56 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Plug, Stop, and waste cocks 1 57 

Plumber's kit of tools, The 94 

Power exerted 57 

Pumps and their action practically illustrated 54 

Pump cylinders' diameters and areas 56 

Quantity of water a pump will raise 55 

Rainwater for domestic use 88 

Rainwater cut-off, where it should be used 94 

Roaring sound from running water 155 

Rotary pump mounted on standard, The 81 

Rotary pump, The 79 

Sags in the upright pipe to be avoided 143 

Self-closing faucets, The 149 

Service pipe connecting to the street main, The loi 

Service pipe clogged by fish 305 

Setting washbasins to marble slabs 293 

Sewer gas and other foul odors 178 

Sheet-steel sink, The 199 

Shut off the water 217 

Singing and whistling of the water faucet 146 

Sink on the second floor. The 206 

Soapstone sink, The 200 

Soft, sticky substance the worst to clear from the service 

pipe 305 

Soil and its use 164 

Soil and waste pipes, soil pipe ventilation 259 

Soil pipe in place from the sewer in the street to the roof of 

the house. The 272 

Solder joints and joint wiping. . . 158 

Special advice to the plumber 256 

Straight upright wipe joint, The. . „ , 176 



CONTENTS b 

PAGE 

Straight-wiped joint, The 165 

Stop and waste cocks for service pipes 106 

Suction pump, The 62 

Table of capacities for hydrauHc rams 8$ 

Table showing the pressure of water at different elevations.. 39 

Table of weights per foot of wrought-iron pipe 57 

Table of wrought-iron pipe for steam, gas, and water 28 

Testing soil and waste pipes 274 

Tin-lined lead pipe 31 

Tin-lined lead pipe not satisfactory 33 

To begin the circulation 1 23 

To compute the weight of pipe per foot 57 

To pump hot water 55 

Traps of various makes 283 

Trouble begins with the lined sink 195 

Two or more sinks connected to one line of waste pipe 208 

Two systems of cold-water supply 106 

Valuable information for the plumber in regard to the 

kitchen sink 193 

Washout closet, The 249 

Water for domestic use from the open well 50 

Water transmits pressure equally in all directions 36 

Weights and strength of lead pipe 25, 26 

Weights per foot of tin-lined lead pipe 33 

What house tanks are made of 109 

What is a vacuum ? 65 

What is water ? , 35 

What kind of bathtub to use 227 

What must the plumber know about machinery ? He must 

be more than practical 19 

What to do in cases of emergency 215 



6 CONTENTS 



PAGE 



When the most danger from a leak in a water pipe is done.. 216 

Wind-mill, The 88 

Wiping in a bibb , « 168 

Wiping in stop cocks 173 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

A double boiler connection 135 

A double water-back connection 132 

Air chambers on pumps 75 

A modern bathroom 234 

An improper back-air vent connection 268 

Artesian well, The 70 

A tiled bathtub 233 

Barry's patent combination ferrules 271 

Bower glass trap, The 287 

Brass ferrules for calking to cast-iron pipe 269. 270 

Burst in the service pipe under the ground, A 304 

Cast-iron enameled washtub 223 

Cast-iron sectional tank. The 116 

Cause of syphonage illustrated 279-281 

Complete job of house drainage, A 275 

Compression cock in section. The 144 

Compression bibbs 147, 148 

Connecting first and second floor sinks to one waste pipe. . . 209 

Connelly globe trap, The 285, 286 

Copper-lined bathtub. The 228 

Crockery bathtub, The 233 

Cubic foot of water on platform scale 44 

7 



8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Cudell trap, The 288 

Cup and flange joints, The 162 

Deep well pump. The 67 

Domestic hydrant, The 99 

Drive -well points 73 

Drive-well pumps 72 

Friction in water pipes illusfrated 58, 59 

Grease traps, How to construct 212-214 

Hanging horizontal lines of soil pipe ^ . . . 263 

Hartford vent trap, The 284 

Hot-water circulation system for service pipe 142 

How to support vertical lines of soil pipe 262 

Hydraulic ram in operation 82 

Hydraulic ram in section 86 

Hydrostatic pressure of water applied to a platform scale. . . 45 

Improper connection to water back 125 

Kitchen range boiler and water back 121 

Lateral pressure of water illustrated 48 

Lawler automatic cellar drainer, The 297-300 

Lawler's bathtub trap 283 

Lawler system of range boiler water circulation. The. . . . 137-140 

Lead pipe in coils 24 

Lift pump. The 60 

Lining wooden tanks 1 1 1 

Making a branch joint 171, 172 

Making an upright joint 175 

New fitting for back-air ventilation, A 277 

Outdoor well pump, The 68 

Outside frost- proof hopper closet. The 243 

Outside water closet, how to make. The 241 

Pipe connection to a lake 41 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9 

PAGE 

Plug cock bibb, The , 1 56 

Plug stop and waste cocks 157 

Plunger closet, The 247 

Plunger closet with straight outlet, The 248 

Porcelain-lined bathtub, The 229 

Pressed trap with trap screw and brass vent coupling, The. . 290 

Rainwater cistern 89 

Range boiler with sediment pocket 130 

Rotary pump in section 79 

Rotary pump on standard 80 

Self-closing basin cock in section 151 

Self-closing bibb in section 1 50 

Service pipe entering below the cellar floor 105 

Setting a sink on the second floor , 207 

Setting a sink without connecting to any sewer 205 

Sexton pipe stopper, The 273 

Slate washtub. The 224 

Soapstone washtub, The 221 

Soil and waste pipe 259 

Soil pipe with traps and back-air vents 265 

Special soil pipe fittings 261 

Star cast lead trap. The 291 

Steel-clad bathtub, The 231 

Straight wiped joint. The 166 

Suction pump. The 62 

Syphon closet complete. The 257 

Syphon closet. The 254, 255 

Tank or ball cock. The 154 

Tankwater supply system 108 

Tin-lined lead pipe in section 31 

Upright branch joint, The 177 



10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Washout closet, The 249 

Washout closet with back outlet 253 

Washout closet with front outlet 252 

Water column 10 feet high 37 

Water column 20 feet high 38 

Water column of dijfferent diameters 40 

Water service pipe, The 102 

White crockery tub. The 222 

Wind-mill, The 87 

Wiping in a bibb 169 

Wiping in a stop cock 174 

Wooden tank in section 112 

Wrought-iron pipe 72 

Zero outside closet, The 245 



INTRODUCTION. 

The plumber who is capable of carrying out the latest 
sanitary improvements of to-day in a thoroughly intelli- 
gent manner is no longer the ordinary mechanic, but a 
scientific man. 

American plumbing is a profession as well as a trade, 
and therefore I call it a professional trade. The capable 
and reliable plumber of to-day must be a man of experi- 
ence. He must be a natural mechanic, and he must be 
an educated man. The man who undertakes to do work 
which he does not thoroughly understand, no matter 
what line it may be in, is a dangerous man. And I 
know of no trade, or even profession, where there can be 
more harm and damage done through ignorance than in 
the construction of plumbing fixtures in buildings. It 
is only the intelligent plumber who can realize why it is 
so important to carry out his work in the most perfect 
manner. He knows that the very lives of those who 
live in the house where he puts up his work depends 
upon how it is done. Therefore such a man to slight a 
piece of plumbing work in a house would be a willful 
criminal, and, consequently, the intelligent plumber 
11 



12 INTRODUCTION 

would naturally be more careful in order to protect him- 
self against damages. While the unintelligent plumber 
goes on with his work in ignorance, not only endanger- 
ing the lives of hundreds of persons, but endangering 
his own life and making himself liable for damages that 
he might never be able to settle. 

These are very important matters that should be con- 
sidered by both the architect and owners of houses. It 
is not only the fault of the plumber that his work is 
poorly done, but often the fault of those who hire him. 
Sometimes they know as little about the importance of 
the work as he does, and sometimes their object is to 
save a few dollars. But poor work in the plumbing line 
soon shows, and in place of being cheap it is always the 
most expensive. 

It will be the aim of the author to show to the 
mechanic in a plain, simple, and practical way all the 
principles involved in the construction of plumbing 
fixtures for all purposes, and also to give him the neces- 
sary scientific knowledge, that he may be able to carry 
out his work in every branch understandingly and with 
the proper intelligence. 

It is not my intention to waste the reader's time giv- 
ing a history of ancient systems of plumbing, or where it 
was first done, or who it was done by. We will confine 
ourselves to the consideration of the different systems 
and plumbing fixtures as used and practiced at the 
present time. And we may make a few predictions of 



INTRODUCTION 13 

some still greater improvements that may in the near 
future be carried out in America. 

I As it has been stated in the introduction that the 
plumber of to-day must be an intelligent man, it might 
be asked, ''What should he know?" If such a ques- 
tion was asked me, I would answer that he should know 
everything. A man in the plumbing business, and who 
works practically at the trade, or who must superintend 
the work, cannot be too intelligent. And again, he 
should be a conscientious person, with respectability, so 
that the people for whom he works could place con- 
fidence in him, with good reason for doing so, and feel 
safe in trusting their lives to his care. The plumber 
who realizes the great importance and responsibility 
which he has in his every day practice could not make 
many mistakes. The great danger of getting bad plumb- 
ing work comes from the plumber who has not sufficient 
intelligence to know his great responsibilities. 

There is perhaps no trade or class of mechanics who 
get so many uncomplimentary and unfair criticisms as 
the plumber. And again, there is scarcely any person 
who pays a plumber's bill, no matter how small it may 
be, without finding fault, really considering that they 
are robbed out of the full amount of the bill. 

We never hear of people finding fault with the car- 
penter's bill, or the plasterer's bill, or any other kind 
of mechanic. And there is not only fault found with 
the plumber's bill, but there is fault found with every- 



14 INTRODUCTION 

thing he does, as a rule, around the house, and yet he 
must be called for. The reason for all the fault-finding 
with the plumber's bill is easily explained. One very 
general impression in the minds of the public is that 
there are millions in the plumbing business, and all 
you have to do if you want to get rich is to go into it. 
And yet, from my own personal knowledge, I don't 
know of one rich plumber, or one whom I could call 
rich. So the public are mistaken on this point, and I can 
prove that they are mistaken on most all other points 
where they find fault with the intelligent plumber. 

The positive reason of the fault found against the 
plumber and his bill comes from the limited knowledge 
possessed by the general public of the plumbing trade, 
and it wnll always be so. No person, I care not how 
much he may know in other lines, if he is not a practical 
plumber, he knows virtually nothing about that trade, 
and he can never be made to know it without having 
the practical experience. The plumbing trade is not 
only a trade and a profession, but it is an art. And there 
are a hundred things more to be considered in it than 
the general public or the unpractical person ever 
dreams of. 

The plumber who stands in the front rank of his trade 
is an independent man. And he has a right to be, for 
he knows perfectly well that his work is important, and 
that no person can understand scarcely anything about 
it but himself. 



INTRODUCTION 15 

It is not enough for the plumber to be a good 
mechanic, but he must be a sanitarian, for the reason 
that he is called upon very often to explain the cause of 
foul odors noticed in houses and buildings of all kinds ; 
no matter from what cause the foul odors may come, the 
plumber is expected to know. And I think the public 
is right on this point, because no other person can have 
as much chance to know from practical experience, or 
actual contact, as the plumber gets in his every day 
experience. 

Before we begin with the practical details of the 
work, we will consider the necessity of plumbing fix- 
tures, and then, having considered that point, we will see 
the necessity of having them as perfect as possible. It 
is one of the general rules in all things that when we 
make a new discovery, or an improvement on anything, 
with advantages over the old or previous way, there are 
always some disadvantages that come with it at the 
same time. And this is quite forcibly proven to be true 
in regard to all improvements made in the line of 
plumbing fixtures. The modern sanitary arrangements 
are not only great conveniences, but they are absolutely 
necessary, particularly in large cities and places thickly 
populated. Therefore the plumber should be just as 
well informed in regard to what might occur, or the 
damaging effects resulting from an improper or poorly 
constructed piece of plumbing work, as he is in regard 
to the practical construction of the work. Without a 



16 INTRODUCTION 

knowledge of the natural laws of matter, no person 
should be allowed to construct or in any way meddle 
with the plumbing fixtures of a house, for the reason 
that they do not know what they are about. Without 
plumbing fixtures it would be impossible to live in large 
cities. We could not drink or use the water we micrht 

o 

get from wells, it would be so polluted and foul. 
Besides, it would be impossible to get a sufficient sup- 
ply. We could not use the outside privy system, for the 
reason that we have not the room in large cities. The 
buildings are so close together that to use the outside 
closet would be impractical : and, consequently, it is 
necessary to have water pipes for the purpose of convey- 
ing healthy water for domestic purposes from some dis- 
tant point where there is a sufficient supply to accom- 
modate the entire inhabitants. It then becomes necessary 
to have a system of waste and sewer pipes for the pur- 
poses of carrying away such matter from each and every 
house to some safe point outside of the city, so that it 
will produce no bad effects from the foul matter and 
waste water. 

The constructing and laying of these supply and waste 
pipes, with the various fixtures and appliances connected 
with them, is the work of the plumber. The different 
appliances, fixtures and arrangements for the thousands 
of situations makes it necessary for the plumber to be a 
mechanic with great practical experience ; and to be a 
successful plumber he must be a natural genius, for the 



INTRODUCTION IT 

reason that there are scarcely ever two pieces of work 
the same. He, Hke the artist, carries his trade in his 
head. This is especially so in regard to the lead work 
of the plumbing trade. It would be impossible to make 
a good plumber out of a man without some natural 
mechanical ability ; it is only a waste of time with such 
a person in the plumbing trade. I have very often 
noticed that the plumber who had most mechanical 
taste always succeeded to a much greater extent than 
the other class. And I venture to say that the natural 
plumber is a higher-class mechanic than can be found in 
any other mechanical line. One of the reasons for this 
is that he has a more varied experience. He comes in 
cjDntact with and must understand, I might say, every 
principle in nearly every kind of machinery or mechan- 
ical arrangement in the course of his practical work. 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN SANITARY 
PLUMBING. 



HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 

WHAT MUST THE PLUMBER KNOW ABOUT MACHINERY? 

He must know the principle upon which the common 
pump works, for the purpose of drawing water from i 
well or cistern, and to properly know this is to know 
more than the average plumber knows. This brings to 
my mind a case that will do very well to illustrate the 
statement above, which actually transpired between 
myself and a practical neighbor plumber. My plumber 
friend, about whom I wish to speak, I will call Jones. 
Mr. Jones was in business for himself at the time, doing 
quite a paying business — that is, it paid him. He was 
considered one of the best plumbers in the United 
States. I had charge of a large and quite prominent 
plumbing establishment in the same city. A gentleman 
who owned a large tract of land in the suburbs of the 
city concluded to build some houses on this land, in 
order that he might induce others to buy his lots and 

19 



20 LAWLER's AMERICAN 

build also. Jones, being considered as good, if not the 
best, plumber in the city, received the order to fit up 
the first house, and to do it by the day. It was to have 
all the modern improvements, such as v/aterclosets, bath 
tubs, wash basins, slop sinks, kitchen sink and laundry 
tubs. It being some distance from the city proper, 
up to that time the water mains had not been extended 
as far as the house ; so it had to be fitted with its own 
water supply, which was drawn or pumped from a well 
with a lift and force pump and discharged into a large 
lead-lined tank, which was located in the attic. From 
the tank all the water was drawn which supplied the dif- 
ferent fixtures. Before my friend Jones had his work 
completed on this house, the land owner concluded to 
build another house, to be an exact duplicate of the 
first, but to be located on the opposite side of the street, 
and also concluded to let the plumbing work of the 
second house by contract to the lowest responsible bid- 
der. So it happened that Mr. Jones and myself were 
the only plumbers invited to bid, and my figures were 
lower than the figures submitted by my friend Jones, 
therefore the contract was awarded to my establish- 
ment. 

I started the work and completed the contract per- 
sonally. At both houses the well had to be sunk quite 
deep in order to reach water. The pumps were located 
in the house near the kitchen sink, and the wells were 
sunk outside, a few feet from the house. The pumps 



SANITARY PLUMBING 21 

not being located directly over the wells, we could not 
use a cylinder set down in the well and connected 
directly with the pump rod, so we had to rely upon 
the pump lifting the water the whole distance from the 
water to the cylinder in the pump. Where my well was 
located I had a suction of about twenty feet. At times 
when the water was low in the well it worked a little 
hard, although they found no fault with it. I was a 
little anxious to know how much of a suction my friend 
Jones had at his well, and while going home from the 
building one evening, I overtook Mr. Jones on the road, 
who was also going home after his day's work, and I 
concluded to ask him some questions in regard to the 
action of the pump on his job. So I said to him : " We 
had to sink our well quite deep in order to reach water, 
and it naturally makes our pump work a little hard. 
How much of a suction have you got on your pump? " 
And he said : " Well, I guess we suck our water about 
forty feet." I said, ''What, forty feet?" and Jones 
said, *' Yes, I am sure we have at least that much." I 
said, "Well, philosophy tells us we can only suck water 
about thirty three feet," and Mr. Jones said, "Who is 
he?" 

I concluded to change the subject and say no more to 
him about pumps. The point I wish to show in this 
little story, which actually occurred, is that there are a 
large number of plumbers who can do a good piece of 
practical work, but who know nothing about the real 



22 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

principles upon which the different devices and machines 
must depend for their proper action. 

The plumber must also know the principle of every 
description of pump, and, I might say, for every pur- 
pose. He should know the principle of the steam engine. 
The plumber comes in contact with the hot-air engine 
for pumping water, and the gas engine. He should 
know the value of air chambers on water pumps. He 
should know all about the principle on which the old 
and reliable hydraulic ram works. This is a machine 
that I have always had a great liking for. It is a most 
wonderful machine, and still holds its own, although it 
is one of the early inventions. 

The posted plumber should understand natural phi- 
losophy. He must know and understand the action of 
the atmosphere under its various conditions ; how heat 
and cold affect it, or its changes in temperature, so that 
he may understand what might happen in any system of 
pipes under the different changes. The plumber must 
also know the same thing about water, its pressure 
under different heights and circumstances, its general 
principle under every condition, its boiling point, its 
freezing point, and all possible knowledge that can be 
obtained in regard to water. This knowledge in regard 
to air and water is absolutely necessary for the plumber 
to know, in order that he may properly understand at a 
glance the principle upon which the thousand-and-one 
different miakes of valves depend for their proper action. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 23 

There are so many makes of closets, each one having 
some different mechanical arrangement to accomplish 
the desired result ; and there are so many hundred dif- 
ferent makes of valves for other purposes, all of which 
the plumber must or should understand, in order that he 
may do the work with the proper intelligence, no matter 
what piece of work he may come across in his practice. 
The things just mentioned are only a few of what the 
plumber actually comes in contact with in the course of 
a few years. So that we may now have some idea how 
much a plumber must know in order to be an expert at 
his business. The plumber should also have a knowl- 
edge of the chemistry of plumbing, but that in itself 
would take volumes, therefore we cannot consider it in 
this edition. 

LEAD AND IRON WATER PIPES FOR DOMESTIC PUR- 
POSES. THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 
FROM BOTH A MECHANICAL AND HYGIENIC STAND- 
POINT. 

The modern house must be supplied with water 
through pipes for domestic and other purposes. And 
it is important to know something about the different 
kinds of pipe in regard to the effect they have on the 
water that passes through them and the effect the water 
has on the pipes; also to know the lasting qualities or 
durability of each kind, the effect of heat and cold on 
them, and why one can stand more frost than another. 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF LEAD PIPE. 









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03 


'340 


1285 


321 


\^ 


B 


I 3 


75 


.125 


05 


930 






y^ 


B 


I 3 


75 


• 125 


04 


1030 


980 


245 


j4 


C 


I 


70 


.10 


09 


790 






/^ 


C 


I 


70 


.10 


07 


775 


782 


195 


/^ 


D 


9 


63 


.065 


07 


462 






y% 


D 


9 


63 


.065 


06 


475 


468 


117 


/^ 





10 


65 


.07 


09 


550 






/^ 





10 


65 


.07 


09 


562 


556 


139 


/^ 




12 


68 


.09 


08 


637 






H 




12 


68 


.09 


OS 


6^3 


625 


156 


% 


" AAA* 


3 8 


10 


• 23 


14 


1510 






% 


AAA 


3 8 


10 


.23 


13 


1587 


1548 


387 


% 


AA 


2 12 I 


06 


.21 


10 


1340 






% 


AA 


2 12 I 


06 


,21 


10 


1420 


1380 


345 


^ 


A 


2 8 I 




.18 


09 


1115 






% 


A 


2 8 I 




.18 


12 


1T90 


1152 


288 


5^ 


B 


2 


95 


.16 


09 


leoo 






% 


B 


2 


95 


.16 


08 


975 


987 


246 


% 


C 


I 7 


86 


.117 


II 


785 






% 


c 


I 7 


86 


.117 


07 


805 


795 


198 


% 


D 


I 4 


84 


.10 


09 


680 






i 


D 


I 4 


84 


.10 


09 


737 


708 


177 


AAA 


4 14 1 


33 


.29 


12 


1450 






% 


AAA 


4 14 I 


33 


.29 


08 


1475 


1462 


365 


% 


AA 


3 8 


20 


.225 


10 


I2CX) 






A A 


3 8 


20 


.22<; 


07 


1250 


1225 


306 


M 


A 


3 I 


13 


.19 


10 


"45 






A 


3 I 


13 


.19 


12 


loco 


1072 


268 


^ 


B 


2 3 I 


05 


• 15 


06 


890 






?4 


B 


2 3 I 


05 


•IS 


10 


840 


865 


216 




c 


I 12 I 




.125 


12 


790 






C 


I 12 I 




.125 


08 


775 


782 


195 


D 


I 3 


9^ 


09 


12 


505 






D 


I 3 


93 


.09 


12 


505 


505 


126 


I 


AAA 


6 I 


60 


•30 


09 


1220 






I 


AAA 


60 1 


60 


•30 


07 


1240 


1230 


307 


I 


AA 


4 8 


46 


•23 


25 


870 







24 



WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF LEAD PIPE. 









O 4J 


i 




V bDV 


bDv 


blu 


1 


^' 


W)v2 


11 


G 


S2 


III 


C C t; 


m 


o 


S 


5 w 


&i 




as 




^li 


"U 




AA 


4 8 


1.46 


•23 


.18 


950 


910 


227 




A 


4 o 


1.42 


.21 


.16 


810 








A 


4 o 


1.42 


.21 


.08 


905 


857 


214 




B 


3 4 


I 34 


•17 


.11 


790 








B 


3 4 


1-34 


•17 


.18 


700 


745 


186 




C 


2 8 


1.28 


.14 


.16 


560 








c 


2 8 


1.28 


•14 


• 15 


565 


562 


140 




D 


2 4 


1-25 


.125 


.14 


525 








D 


2 4 


1.25 


.125 


.18 


512 


518 


129 




E 


2 O 


1.20 


.10 


• 17 


475 








E 


2 O 


1.20 


.10 


• 14 


475 


475 


118 






I 8 


I. .8 


.09 


.20 


320 










I 8 


i.iS 


.09 


•19 


330 


325 


81 


1/4 


"a A A* 


6 12 


1.80 


.275 


.20 


937 






iJ4 


AAA 


6 12 


1.80 


•27s 


.18 


987 


962 


240 


iJ4 


AA 


5 12 


1-75 


•25 


.07 


885 






iJ4 


AA 


5 12 


1-75 


•25 


.18 


762 


823 


205 


1/4 


A 


4 II 


1.67 


.21 


.12 


690 






:i 


A 


4 II 


1.67 


.21 


.09 


680 


685 


171 


B 


3 II 


1-59 


•17 


. 12 


505 






B 


3 II 


1-59 


•17 


.14 


587 


546 


136 


C 


3 o 


1.52 


•135 


• 14 


415 






'A 


C 


3 o 


1.52 


•'35 


.15 


425 


420 


105 


1^ 


D 


2 8 


1.50 


•125 


.15 


375 






iM 


D 


2 8 


1.50 


•125 


• 19 


325 


350 


87 


iJ4 




2 O 


I 44 


.095 




325 






i^ 




2 O 


1.44 


.095 


.11 


320 


322 


80 


Iko 


' AAA " 


8 o 


2.08 


.29 


.20 


730 








AAA 


8 o 


2.08 


.29 


.14 


755 


742 


185 


i\/^ 


AA 


7 o 


2. 


•25 


.16 


7C0 






i)/^ 


AA 


7 o 


2. 


.25 


.16 


700 


700 


175 


f-Yl 


A 


6 4 


1.96 


.22 


.22 


595 






ij^ 


A 


6 4 


i.q6 


.22 


• 15 


662 


628 


157 


i^ 


B 


5 o 


1.86 


.18 


.20 


500 








B 


5 o 


1.86 


.18 


.19 


512 


506 


126 


i^ 





4 4 


1.80 


•15 


.24 


445 






i}/^ 


c 


4 4 


1.80 


•15 


.20 


415 


430 


107 


\\^ 


D 


3 S 


1.78 


•14 


.21 


310 






^}4 


D 


3 8 


1.78 


.14 


.23 


320 


315 


78 


i/^ 




3 o 


1.74 


.12 


■34 


260 






i^ 




3 o 


1-74 


.12 


.28 


230 


245 


61 


i§i 


"b 


5 o 


2. 12 










116 


i§^ 


C 


4 o 


2.04 














C 


4 o 


2.04 


.... 








93 


!i 


D 


3 lo 


2. 


.125 


•23 


32s 






D 


3 lo 


2. 


•125 


•14 


312 


318 


79 


2 


AAA 


lO II 


2.60 


.30 


•'5 


610 






2 


AAA 


lO II 


2.60 


•30 


•'3 


612 


611 


152 


2 


AA 


8 ,4 


2.50 


•25 


•25 


512 






2 


AA 


8 14 


2.50 


•25 


•25 


510 


511 


127 


2 


A 


7 o 


2.42 


.21 


• 14 


405 






2 


A 


7 o 


2.42 


.21 


.26 


405 


405 


lOI 


2 


B 


6 o 


2.36 


.19 


.27 


3^0 






2 


B 


6 o 


2.38 


.19 


.16 


390 


360 


90 


2 


C 


5 o 


2.32 


.16 


•13 


275 






2 


c 


5 o 


2.32 


.16 


.08 


245 


260 


65 


2 


D 


4 o 


2.18 


.09 


.22 


200 






2 


D 


4 o 


2.l8 


.09 




2CX) 


200 


50 



25 



26 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

I speak only of lead and iron water pipes, for domestic 
purposes, because there is no other material used for 
this work that has proved satisfactory, although great 
efforts have been made to replace them with other kinds 
of material, such as block-tin pipe, tin-lined lead pipe, 
paper, glass, gutta-percha, etc. When we speak of iron 
water pipe, for domestic purposes, we mean that which 
is galvanized, and not the plain black iron pipe. The 
reason why plain black wrought-iron pipe is not used for 




Fig. I. 

house purposes is because it rusts too soon, both inside 
and out, coloring the water also, and lasting but a very 
short time. Galvanized iron pipe is this same black gas 
or steam pipe coated with zinc or zinc and tin. The 
pipes are first prepared and cleaned with strong acid, 
then put in a bath containing melted zinc, which adheres 
to them and forms a thin coating all over the pipes. 
This is for the purpose of preventing rust and thereby 
preserving it. If this zinc coating should become loose 
and fall from the pipe through any cause, the pipe at 



SANITARY PLUiMBI>:G 



2r. 



such place would then be no better than common black 
gas pipe, and it frequently scales off. We can scarcely 
bend a piece of this pipe without cracking the galvan- 
ized coating. The joints or place where threads have 
been cut are weak points ; also, as the coating is re- 
moved there is nothing left to guard against the rust. 






Fig. 2. 



There is another cause of trouble with this galvanizing, 
and that is in the process of coating the pipe. It often 
leaves a rough surface on the inside; and this rough 
surface is not only a great check to the flow of water, 
but makes a great place for sediment or any mechanical 
matter to adhere to. Where we have water with much 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



w 
< 

o 

< K 

S I 



Pm ^ 



QQ 



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J3d sao([E£) nt 



•M^jog JO qDui 
jadspeajqxjo 



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J3d Jq3p^ 



•jooj otqn3 suQ 

3utuiBjuoa 3di(j 

JO qj3u3q " 



•Bajy IBUMJX3 



■«3JV iBiuajuj 



V0»0 t^N 0000000 N O (^00 00 <*J 
OwioOrOO-Oi-ifluit^OCNvoOOO-i-'OM 
Q O O M N -^vO CTv^ lovo 0>iON •N\0 0>i-i 600 
5 q O O O O O « N rp Y^ 00 -^ :r^ rr, o 

dddodd 0066660 d«Hwisfo-*- 

t^OO 00 'i-Tj-M M - -OOOOOOOOOOOOOOMOCOOOO 

fO N M ir)\o 00 •* t^ m t^ lOOO N ■«- r^ 00 tx ►< 
■<f « vO ■^ M P~ 10 0\vO l^ •^ LC N 0\\0 vO - •* tv V 

6ddd'--<NNcniOC^(>doi -^od rroO -^ 6 



IT) IDVO W O-VO M (^. O 00 N 00 VO 

!►" ei dvdvd d « d 6<-*m o>t^4-roN n 






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O I- M t*> moo •* O f^ t^ rooo 



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N r<l ■<^ r^ a> W lo ; 



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JO qjSaaq 



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ir O vO uivo O rr. o vO - . 



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« po (*! •♦ ■♦ mo t^oo ov o 



SANITARY PLUMBING 29 

sediment in it this pipe soon becomes choked up. And 
another trouble with it is, where any part of the coating 
on the inside becomes loose, the water gets between it 
and the plain iron of the pipe, causing the rust to form 
in a very short time. And where the water is perfectly 
clear, this pipe will soon become solid. Galvanized iron 
pipe will not stand the frost as well as lead pipe, because 
it is harder, and when it is under very heavy pressure, 
such as the freezing of water causes, the iron breaks and 
cracks generally the entire length that has been frozen. 
This cannot be repaired, as soldering breaks or cracks 
of this kind would not stand pressure. Therefore it has 
to be taken out and replaced with new pipe. Zinc, 
which is the principal part of the coating on galvanized 
pipe, is very dangerous to take into the system, as there 
have been many cases of zinc poisoning recorded from 
drinking water conveyed through galvanized iron pipe. 
And the purer the water is, the greater the danger 
from the zinc of the galvanized pipe. A practical illus- 
tration of this comes to my mind. Some cases, where 
galvanized iron pipe was used in wells for the suction pipe 
to the pump, it was found that after two or three days' 
use all the water in the well would taste of zinc, and con- 
tinue in that way as long as there was any galvanized 
coating on the pipe. Never use galvanized iron pipe in 
a well where the water is to be used for domestic pur- 
poses. This kind of pipe is used more on account of its 
cheapness than its quality. It can be handled more 



30 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

easily than lead pipe, and it can be put together or laid 
in much less time, and by cheaper men, because it 
requires skilled mechanics to work lead pipe. The price 
of galvanized iron pipe is about one-third that of lead 
pipe per foot ; and the price of labor on iron pipe is 
about one-sixth the price of labor on the same amount 
of work done with lead pipe. Scarcely any first-class 
building is fitted up with galvanized iron pipe, because 
experience has proved that lead pipe is the cheapest, 
notwithstanding its high price, compared with iron 
pipe. Lead pipes are more safe from poisoning than 
galvanized pipes. The only time there is danger of this 
kind is when they are new and bright, and particularly 
if the water is perfectly clear that has to pass through 
them. But this does not often happen. There is not 
much danger of lead poisoning where the water has some 
sediment or mechanical matter in it, as this matter forms 
a fine coating on the inside of the pipe and stops any 
further action of the water on the lead. In regard to 
standing the frost, lead pipe may be frozen many times 
without bursting once, because it is soft and stretches 
with the expansion of the ice in the pipe. When it does 
break under such pressure it will generally be found to 
be in small holes about one inch long, and these can be 
repaired very easily by a plumber without removing 
any part of the pipe. The greatest cause of complaints 
against lead pipe work in a house comes from the poor 
way in which it is done. Good lead pipe will stand any 



SANITARY PLUMBING SI 

pressure expected of it. And if the mechanical part of 
the work is done properly it will last a lifetime. But it 
must be well done, and it requires experienced mechanics 
for the work. The reason why the authorities of nearly 
every city of much importance compels the people to 
lay lead water service pipes in the streets is because 
they also know from experience that lead will last 
longer and there will be less tearing up of the streets 
for repairing. 



Lead 




Tin Lining 



Fig. 3. 

Tin-lined lead pipe is very good for some purposes 
for conveying cold water. But the author has found by 
practical experience that it is not satisfactory when used 
in connection with the plumbing fixtures in buildings, 
and is in no way satisfactory when used for conveying 
hot water. The tin-lined pipe may be used with some 
advantage for such purposes as carrying water from 
springs or hydraulic rams. A trouble with this pipe is 
in getting it properly joined together, as the joints must 
be wipe joints. Joints on tin-lined lead pipe require a 



32 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



plumber of great practical experience, for the reason 
that the tin lining on the inside will melt at a lower 
degree of temperature than the lead on the outside ; 
and, in consequence of this, there is always great danger 
of not only weakening the pipe by melting of the inner 
lining of tin for some distance from the joint, but also 
blocking up the interior of the pipe by the melted tin. 

WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF TIN-LINED LEAD PIPE. 



Caliber. 








B 

Weight 
per ft. 


4) S 


D 
Weight 
per ft. 








Inches. 


lb. oz. 
I 8 

^ 1 

4 8 
6 o 

6 12 

9 o 

lO 12 


lb. OZ. 

1 5 

2 O 

2 12 

3 8 

4 12 

5 12 

8 o 

9 o 


lb. oz. 

I 2 

1 12 

2 8 

3 o 

4 o 

4 12 

6 4 

7 o 


lb. ox. 
I o 

1 4 

2 O 

2 4 

3 4 
3 12 

5 o 

6 o 


lb. oz 

13 

1 o 

1 12 

2 O 

2 8 

3 o 

4 4 

5 4 


lb. oz. 

O ID 

13 

1 8 

1 12 

2 O 

2 8 

3 8 

4 O 


lb. oz. 

I 4 
I 8 


lb. oz. 
o 8 

11 

1 o 

; t 

2 O 

3 4 


lb. ox. 


{5 


o 9 

12 

1 O 


% 


I 




iw 




lU 

















The strength of tin-lined pipe is about the same as 
th^t of lead pipe, the greater strength of the tin being 
offset by the lighter weight per foot of the pipe thus 
made. 

FUSING POINTS OF METALS. 
Antimony Melts at 8io Deg. Fahr. 



Bismuth 
Copper . , 

Iron 

Lead 

Silver . . . 
Zinc . . . . 
Tin 



500 
2,000 
2,912 

612 
1,832 

773 
428 



It will be noticed, by referring to the table of the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 33 

fusing points of metals, that tin melts at a temperature 
of 428 degrees, and that lead requires a temperature of 
612 degrees before it will melt, and the solder used, 
which is called the plumber's wiping metal, is a combi- 
nation of lead and tin, at the proportion of about six 
parts tin and ten parts lead, which combination has a 
melting point of about 450 degrees. In making a wipe 
joint on tin-lined lead pipe, we will have three different 
kinds of metal to contend with, each one having a dif- 
ferent melting point ; and to make the joint properly 
each metal must be melted. This gives us some idea of 
the difficulty which the plumber will have to contend 
with where he uses the tin-lined lead pipe for water 
services. And these are the reasons why it requires an 
experienced plumber to handle and work this pipe in a 
satisfactory manner. 

ANOTHER REASON WHY THE TIN-LINED LEAD PIPE 
IS NOT SATISFACTORY. 

The tin-lined lead pipe is also objectionable on account 
of its construction, and that is, the tin lining is not 
properly fused or melted to the lead ; it is simply pressed 
closely to the lead, or the lead pressed closely to the tin 
lining. And it often happens that in bending the pipe, 
or where the tin has been melted by some inexperienced 
workman, the lining pulls away from the lead and allows 
the water to get in between the tin and the lead, which 
produces not only a bad mechanical effect, but it appears 



34 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

to produce in this state a bad chemical effect, which 
weakens the pipe at such points so that it cannot stand 
the pressure of the water, and a burst in the pipe is the 
result. 

THE EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON THE TIN-LINED 
LEAD PIPE. 

When the tin-lined lead pipe is used for hot water, we 
meet another trouble. This is, perhaps, worse than the 
others. It is in the uneven expansion and contraction 
of the two metals, the tin and the lead, which soon 
separates them, leaving the tin lining quite loose on the 
inside. And the author has had so much trouble and 
unsatisfactory work with tin-lined lead pipe in houses 
that he considers its bad qualities far outnumber any 
good points it may have. 

HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 

Having considered the most practical kinds of pipe 
for domestic use, from both a mechanical and hygienic 
point of view, with tables of sizes, weights, capacity, and 
strength of each, we will now consider the nature of liq- 
uids in regard to their mechanical application. With a 
proper understanding of the principles of water, the 
plumber will be able to go on with his mechanical work 
without guessing, and will be able to tell before he be- 
gins what the result will be with any kind of work when 



SANITARY PLUMBING 35 

finished. Therefore, it may be seen that a man who 
knows the foundation principles of the work he has in 
hand is working with his eyes open, while the poor fel- 
low who knows the practical or mechanical part of his 
work is continually digging in the dark and is never sure 
of any result. 

WHAT IS WATER? 

Water is one of the most wonderful substances in na- 
ture of which we have any knowledge. It is not only 
wonderful on account of its positive necessity for all liv- 
ing things and on account of the many other uses and 
mechanical arrangements that it can be applied to, but 
on account of its mysterious principle as a solid of not 
possessing the quality of cohesion. 

Water is practically incompressible liquid ; that is, its 
particles or atoms are so fine or so small and so close to 
each other that it requires a greater pressure to compress 
them closer, or make a certain amount occupy a smaller 
space, than is required to compress any other known sub- 
stance. It is composed by a chemical union of oxygen 
and hydrogen in the proportion of — 

By weight, Oxygen, ..... 88.9 parts. 

By " Hydrogen, . . . . 1 1 , i parts. 

By volume. Oxygen i part. 

By " Hydrogen, . T . . 2 parts. 

Liquids transmit pressure equally in all directions, un- 
changed and without loss of power. This quality of pres- 



36 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

sure is their most characteristic property. Water, when 
heated from 40 degrees, ^^hich is nearly the temperature 
when at its maximum density, to 212 degrees, expands 
.0460 times its volume, or .00027 of its bulk for each 
degree, making its increase for 180 degrees equal to one 
cubic foot in 21.41 feet. Another quality or principle 
possessed by water, which appears strange to us, is that 
below 39 degrees, its point of maximum density, its 
ratio of expansion decreases slowly, but progresses rap- 
idly to the point of congelation, where it suddenly ex- 
pands .0855 of its volume. A cubic foot of ice weighs 
57.5 pounds, or about five pounds less than when at 40 
degrees temperature. 

Water, therefore, loses its quality as a liquid when its 
temperature falls below 38 degrees, and at that point it 
takes the quality of cohesion and becomes like a block 
of wood or stone. And again, when the temperature of 
water, open to the atmosphere, rises above 212 degrees, 
it changes again and becomes a gas in the shape of 
steam ; so that w^hen we consider water from a hy- 
draulic standpoint, we only take into consideration the 
temperature of from 39 to 212 degrees. 

WATER TRANSMITS PRESSURE EQUALLY IN ALL DI- 
RECTIONS. 

The above is easy to say, but let us try to understand 
what it means. Like all other substances, water has its 
specific weight. It has more than this; it has also its 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



37 



pressure at the same time, due to its head or height at 
which it stands. This second quality differs very much 
from the first, which will be shown in the following illus- 
tration. 

For the purpose of illustrating, we will consider Figs. 



ft 

I 
I 



.-ilL. 



____ KhLf 



-:- . — — "^ .-^-=. 



- -~ai^ 



Fig. 4. 



4 and 5, two tubes filled with water, and each having 
a small branch pipe at the bottom and turned up, with 
the mouth open and having an area of one square inch. 
Resting on the opening are weights indicated by the let- 
ter W. The tube in Fig. 4 stands 10 feet high above 
the surface of the water under weight W, so that this 
distance of height gives a pressure of 4.33 pounds per 



38 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



^"1 

1 
1 
I 

1 

1 

f 

1 


Et^ 


! 
1 

i 

t 

j 

} 
1 

1 


E£": 


c> 


5^-' 




E-Ir 


1 

! 

1 


^>: 


I 

1 

i 

i 
f 
i 
i 

i 


^3i 




Fig. 5. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



39 



square inch. We now carry the tube twice as high, or 
20 feet, as shown in Fig. 5, filled to the top with water 
also, and we will have a pressure of twice the amount, 
or 8.66 pounds per square inch, as shown on weight W, 
Fig. 5. 



TABLE SHOWING THE PRESSURE OF WATER AT DIF- 
FERENT ELEVATIONS. 







1 








0. 








h 




w c 


T3 


^t-l 


s 


p. a 


X 


J£ d 




a a< 


z 


^^ 


u. 


M 


I 


0.34 


5 


2.16 


10 


4 33 


15 


6.49 


20 


8.66 


25 


10.82 


30 


12.99 


35 


15.16 


40 


1732 


45 


19.49 


50 


21 65 


55 


23 82 


60 


25-99 


65 


28 


15 


70 


30 


32 


75 


32 


48 


80 


34 


6s 


85 


36 


82 


90 


3» 


98 


95 


41 


15 





u 




^^ 




u 




^ 




a 




s, 




V . 




V . 




t> . 




^rC 




3-5 




s-g 




M S 




IS " 




^ a 


s 


i^ 


1 


^"i 




n 


w 


^3 


K 


^3 


w 


^53 




rt u- 




Ri O- 




a a' 




3(73 




3cn 


V 


3CAJ 


V 


cr 


u 


CT 


V 


cr 


u^ 


W 


fe 


W 


fa 


W 


100 


43 3^ 


195 


84.47 


290 


125.62 


105 


45.48 


200 


86.63 


295 


127.78 


no 


47.64 


205 


88.80 


300 


129.9s 


"5 


49.81 


210 


90.96 


310 


134.28 


120 


51 98 


215 


93-14 


320 


138.62 


125 


54-15 


220 


95.30 


330 


142.95 


130 


56.31 


225 


97-49 


340 


147.28 


135 


58.48 


230 


99 63 


350 


151 61 


140 


60 64 


235 


101 79 


360 


155-94 


145 


62.81 


240 


103 96 


370 


160.27 


150 


64.97 


245 


106.13 


380 


164.61 


155 


67.14 


250 


108 29 


3QO 


168.94 


160 


69.31 


255 


110.46 


400 


173-27 


165 


71 -47 


260 


112.62 


500 


=16.58 


170 


73.64 


265 


114 79 


600 


259.90 


^75 


75-80 


270 


116.96 


700 


303.22 


180 


77.97 


275 


119. 12 


800 


346 54 


185 


80.14 


280 


121.29 


900 


^89.86 


190 


82.30 


285 


123.45 


1000 


433.18 



The table above shows the pressure of water at dif- 
ferent elevations, from i to 1,000 feet, which will do for 
all practical purposes. And the same proportions may 
be carried out for any greater height if necessary. 

Still another matter to impress upon the mind of the 



40 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



mechanic in regard to the pressure of water from its 
head might be understood by referring to Figs. 6 and 7. 
It must be remembered that volume or quantity of 
water has nothing to do with its pressure, and to show 
this with a good contrast we will consider Fig. 6, a pipe 




or tube 20 feet high and 5 feet in diameter, filled with 
water; and Fig. 7, also a pipe or tube, only i foot 
in diameter and 20 feet high. We will find that the 
pressure of water at the bottom of each to be the same, 
8.66 pounds per square inch, as shown by the weights 
W W resting over the openings. This false impression 
of thinking that water has a greater pressure, or force, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



41 



the greater the body of water, is quite general among 
average mechanics who have not studied the princi- 




ples of hydraulics. There are also so many different 
situations, conditions, and arrangements of pipes con- 



42 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

nected with hydraulics, that unless thoroughly acquainted 
with the subject the mechanic may make many mis- 
takes. 

In Fig. 8 is shown another arrangement of pipes, so 
that the principle of water getting its pressure from its 
head or height may be fully impressed upon the mind. 

A represents a small lake from which water may be 
carried in many ways through pipes, and in any direc- 
tion. This cut, or sketch, will also answer to show that 
water will find its level ; that is, water confined in a 
pipe, no matter what distance it might run if not pre- 
vented by some obstruction, will always rise to as high 
a level as the head or height from which it is taken, and 
this is shown in Fig. 8. As will be noticed, the water 
in the small pipe C stands as high as the level of the 
water in lake A. Still another point which may be of 
some use is shown in Fig. 8, and that is, B represents a 
large tube connecting with the bottom of lake A v/hich 
may contain many tons, yes, or thousands of tons of 
water. The tube B having a branch and an opening of 
one square inch with a weight, W, to prevent the water 
from escaping, the height from the opening to the sur- 
face being 20 feet, we will have a pressure of 8.66 
pounds per square inch, the same as shown in Figs. 6 
and 7. We will now consider pipe C in Fig. 8, which is 
connected near the top of lake A on the side, and car- 
ried a thousand feet or so from the lake. The size of 
pipe C may be only one inch or less in diameter, and 



SANITA.RY PLUMBING 43 

yet fitted with a branch having an opening one square 
inch area, and situated 20 feet lower than the surface of 
the water in lake A, and on a level with weight on pipe 
B, would have exactly the same pressure, 8.66 pounds 
per square inch, as shown. And again, it makes no 
difference how many bends there may be in the pipe, 
when we consider pressure when the water is not in 
motion. It will be noticed that the water in branch 
pipe D, which is connected with pipe C near the lake, 
also rises to the same height as it does in the lake or at 
the top or extreme end of pipe C. 

The student may now understand that water in any 
case or shape gets its pressure due to its height, with- 
out regard to quantity or bulk. And the reason why 
water receives its pressure due to its height is the next 
point I want the reader to comprehend, and if I succeed 
in accomplishing this and nothing else, I will feel satis- 
fied for the time spent in writing this book. In ex- 
plaining this wonderful principle of water, as we find it 
explained in most all the works on hydraulics and hydro- 
statics, it is very easy to say that water presses equally 
in all directions, and that it is a liquid and will rise to 
the level of its source, and call it the hydrostatic 
paradox ; that one of its important properties is the 
perfect mobility of its particles over each other, which 
results from the slight cohesion which it possesses, 
or in other words, because it does not possess the 
quality of cohesion, and as many more such terms and 



u 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



explanations, but nothing that will show to the person 
of limited education (and, I might add, to the average 
person of considerable education) whereby they can 
understand what the meaning of such terms are, so that 
the reader will thoroughly understand what he reads. 
And in endeavoring to accomplish this object I make 
original drawings and sketches in a practical way. 




Fig. 9. 

To show that water does not get its pressure due to 
its own weight or specific gravity, we will refer to 
Fig. 9, which represents an ordinary platform scales, 
and placed on the scales is a vessel made in the shape of 
a cube, so that it will hold just one cubic foot of water. 
We will find that this amount of water will weigh about 
62 J4 pounds; and that is just what it will show on the 
scales, with the additional weight of the vessel or cube 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



45 



which holds the water, which may be only a pound or 
two. We now take the same water or the same amount 
of water, one cubic foot or 62^ pounds in weight, and 
we apply it in a different way to the scales, as shown in 
Fig. 10. 




Fig. 10. 

As will be noticed, we place a pump cylinder, bolted 
to a plank or any other support, a little distance above 
the scales, and having fitted to it a plunger with stuff- 
ing box at the bottom end, and a head in the end of 



46 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the plunger resting on the scales, while the upper end 
of the cylinder has connected to it a small pipe or tube. 
Now, suppose we make the pipe small enough to hold a 
cubic foot of water at a length of i,ooo feet, and the 
area of the plunger in the cylinder is one square inch, 
and we carr}^ the small pipe in a perpendicular or verti- 
cal position, so that it will be i,ooo feet above the top 
of the plunger. The plunger will press down on the 
scales and indicate a weight or pressure of 433.18 
pounds. And yet we have added nothing to the 62)^ 
pounds of water. Again, this same amount of water 
might still be placed in a smaller tube and carried up 
high enough to cause a pressure on the scales of tons in 
place of pounds. We will now tr}^ to understand the 
cause of this seemingly wonderful principle — why 62^ 
pounds of water can be made to exert a pressure of 
1,CXX) pounds or more, simply by being placed in a ver- 
tical position. We will first have to understand a few 
principles of matter in order to clearly grasp with our 
minds this one quality of water. 

Matter is the general name which has been given to 
that substance which under an infinite variety of forms 
affects our senses. We apply the term matter to every- 
thing that occupies space, or that has length, breadth, 
and thickness. 

The properties or qualities of matter are the powers 
belonging to it, which are capable of exciting in our 
mind certain sensations. All the great forces or agents 



SANITARY PLUMBING 47 

in nature, those which produce or are the cause of the 
different changes which take place in matter, may be 
enumerated as follows : Internal or molecular forces ; 
the attraction of gravitation ; heat ; light ; the attractive 
and repulsive forces of magnetism and electricity ; and, 
finally, a force or power which only exists in living ani- 
mals and plants, which is called vital force. 

All kinds of matter is composed of small particles 
called atoms. And to give some idea as to the size of 
an atom of any kind of matter, we must understand 
that the most powerful microscope that could be con- 
trived by man would not be strong enough to enable us 
to see a single atom. A block of stone or wood is 
made up of these small particles, and the force which 
holds them together is called attraction or cohesion. If 
they did not possess the property of cohesion they 
would fall away from each other like so much dust, 
each one separately and independently in itself. 

Water, or a liquid body, is one in which the particles 
of matter are so feebly attracted together that they 
move upon each other with the greatest facility. There- 
fore water does not possess this quality of cohesion, and 
consequently its particles or atoms can never be made 
to assume any particular form, except that of the vessel 
in which it is enclosed. From this we can see that 
water will not hold itself together like the particles in a 
stick of wood or an iron rod, and consequently it may 
be seen that when water is placed in a pipe or vessel, on 



48 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 



account of its nature it will press sideways as well as on 
the base. Water, like other kinds of matter, has its 
own specific weight, but it has not, as stated before, the 




Fig. II. 

property of cohesion, and on account of water not pos- 
sessing the property of cohesion is the reason for get- 
ting its pressure, due to its head or height. And this 
will be clearly illustrated in the following experiments : 



SANITARY PLUMBING 49 

In Fig. II we show again a platform scales, with a man 
standing on them, and we will consider that the exact 
weight of this man is just 150 pounds. Now, that is 
what the scales would show if the man was standing on 
them, without touching anything else. If the man 
standing on the scales will press against a wall with his 
hands, as shown in Fig. 11, the scales will show more 
than 150 pounds, and the exact amount they will show 
is the weight of the man and also the pressure which the 
man exerts with his hands on the wall. 

We will now have the man shown in Fig. 11 take the 
place of a single particle of water which has its own 
specific weight ; and, for example, that specific weight 
being 150 pounds, we will now suppose that the man will 
exert a pressure while standing on the scales of 150 
pounds against the wall, which he could easily do. The 
scales would now indicate 300 pounds, and yet there 
has not been any other material or matter placed upon 
the scales. This is the reason why water exerts a 
greater pressure the greater its height. And to go 
on in the same way, as the particles of water rest one 
upon the other, each one with its own specific weight 
and also its lateral pressure, we might consider that by 
placing another man whose weight was also 150 pounds 
on the head of the man shown in Fig. 11, and the 
second man to also press against the wall in the same 
manner, the scales would then show a weight of 600 
pounds — continuing this for any height in the same 



50 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

way, so that, whatever the lateral pressure of water may 
have in a pipe or vessel at any height, it exerts the same 
amount of pressure on the next particle below it. 

We will now take up the matter of supplying the 
house with water. There are many ways of getting a 
supply of water through pipes for domestic use which 
vary according to location and circumstances, and each 
differs in some respect to the other, and the plumber 
should have a proper knowledge of them all. 



WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE FROM THE OPEN WELL. 

These wells the plumber does not have much to do 
with, however. The plumber as a sanitarian should know 
where to properly locate a well in order to guard against 
any sewage or other foul water finding its way into 
the well, which would be the cause of polluting the well 
water and making it unfit for use. To take the neces- 
sary precautions in locating a well, we should know the 
nature of the soil below the surface. Water often 
travels long distances under ground through certain 
kinds of earth ; and in connection with this, if we must 
have any sort of outside water-closet, it is quite an 
important matter where we should locate it. The 
closet should be located as far away as possible from 
the well. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 51 



PROTECT THE TOP OF THE WELL, 

The top or upper part near the surface of the dug 
well should also be very carefully protected against sur- 
face water from flowing directly in without passing 
through at least three or four feet of soil. We should 
never allow slop water of any kind to be emptied out 
on the surface near a well, and this is something that is 
very much neglected. Another very dangerous thing 
to do is to locate a terra-cotta sewer pipe or waste drain 
near a well, for the reason that such pipe or drain, as a 
rule, is never perfectly water-tight; and in such cases 
it is quite easy for sewage water to find its way into 
the well. 

TO LOCATE THE CESSPOOL. 

Another great difificulty which we have to contend 
with in places where we have no regular sewerage system, 
and where inside closets and other plumbing fixtures are 
used, is to locate the necessary cesspool. There are a 
great many places where all these things are necessary 
at the same time or place. That is to have inside water- 
closets and other plumbing fixtures, and also an outside 
closet on the old style privy, and a cesspool for the 
house drainage ; and at the same time, and on the same 
lot — perhaps a small one at that — to have a well from 
which all the water used in the house for any purpose is 



52 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

drawn. It may be seen that to have healthy water 
under such circumstances is almost impossible. 

Referring to Fig. 12, it will give us some idea of how 
easy it is for foul water from the outside water-closet 
or cesspool to find its way to the well. If possible, the 
well should always be located at a higher elevation on 
the ground than the cesspool ; and, as I said before, to 
locate the well as far away from the privy or cesspool 
as possible. 

OTHER KINDS OF WELLS. 

There are also other kinds of wells from which we 
get a water supply for domestic purposes, and con- 
sequently different ways of drawing the water from 
them, which we will also consider. 

THE BORED, OR ARTESIAN, WELL. 

This is a well which is simple — a three or four inch 
hole, bored or drilled down through the rock or earth 
to a depth sufficient to secure the necessary amount of 
water, and in which is placed a pump to bring the water 
to the surface, and also force it into the house. We 
have also the drive-well pump, which is a pipe driven 
down into the earth without digging or drilling any 
hole. This pipe is sunk below the water level, with a 
fine strainer on the bottom to prevent dirt or gravel 
from blocking the pipe, and a pump on the upper end 



SANITARY PLUMBING 53 

to pump the water up — all of which will be fully ex- 
plained and illustrated in the following pages. 

There are also locations where wells of any kind are 
not practicable for domestic purposes — that is, it would 
be too expensive to secure a water supply in that way — 
and also where water cannot be secured through the 
pipe system from other locations. In such cases it be- 
comes necessary to make a special water-supply system, 
and this is done by catching all the rain water we can 
from the roof of the house, and conveying it into a 
cistern, from which it can be pumped after passing 
through a proper filtering arrangement, and used for all 
purposes. 

In many country places it is found quite practicable to 
convey water from small springs through a pipe to a 
tank situated in the attic of a house, and the water 
taken from the tank to supply all the plumbing fixtures 
in the house. This is a small water works in itself. 
The author has constructed a great many water works 
of this kind. Again, we have places where we can use 
the hydraulic ram to supply the house automatically 
with water from a running stream, or spring below the 
house, and deliver the water also to a tank in the attic. 

We have also the wind-mill, which gives the motive 
power, and automatically pumps all the necessary water 
to any desired point. Horse power is sometimes used 
in many places for the purpose of operating pumps to 
lift and force water for domestic and other purposes. 



54 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

There are many other systems, all of which the practical 
plumber will, sooner or later, be called to either set or 
repair! 

PUMPS AND THEIR ACTION PRACTICALLY EXPLAINED. 

We will now take up the question of the pump, that the 
mechanic may have a proper understanding of the funda- 
mental principle upon which this machine works. A 
pump is composed of a cylinder, plunger, check valve, 
and suction or connecting pipe. These four sections 
are the most essential parts forming the pump. By the 
omission of one of them the pump is incomplete. Let 
either of them become deranged, and no water can be 
elevated from any considerable depth. The character 
and extent of such disarrangement can be easily deter- 
mined oy the practical plumber; but the proper adjust- 
ment often bafPies the skill of the plumber or mechanic 
who has not given this question the proper consideration. 

The cylinder, being the first essential part, should be 
perfectly air-tight, with smooth and parallel sides. The 
plunger must fit the cylinder exactly, so as to exclude 
the air from it in the upward passage of the plunger, 
allowing none to pass its side and enter the vacuum 
made below. 'Good judgment must be exercised in 
fitting the plunger to the cylinder. If fitted too tightly, 
it will greatly add to the labor of pumping. If adjusted 
too loosely, a perfect vacuum cannot be created. The 
bottom or check valve should be, for cold water, con- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 55 

structed of best and smoothest portions of leather or 
rubber, or a combination of these materials, in connec- 
tion with a perfectly smooth surface for a valve seat, in 
order that the union of the value and its seat may be 
complete. The cylinder being round and bored true, 
the plunger fitted to the cylinder with a bottom valve 
and seat as nearly perfect as I have shown that they 
should be, nothing is now wanting to prevent the ma- 
chine from producing almost a perfect vacuum at every 
upward motion of the plunger. But to raise water this 
extra fine care must be continued to and below the sur- 
face of the fluid by means of a perfectly air-tight tube of 
suitable material. 

TO PUMP HOT WATER. 

When pumps are used for hot water, or hot liquids of 
any kind, the same general rules apply here as in pump- 
ing cold water, excepting that changes are required in 
the nature of some of the materials, as leather or rubber 
ceases to be of value as packing for the plunger, or 
as a substance for making the valves. The heat takes 
the life out of these materials, and some more durable 
substance is needed, such as brass in itsVarious mixtures ; 
usually a hard quality of bronze. 

QUANTITY OF WATER A PUMP WILL RAISE. 
The quantity of water a pump will raise in a given 
time is determined by specific and immutable laws, viz.: 
Diameter of cylinder, length of stroke, and speed of 



56 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



plunger. The first two elements, or factors, are those 
of capacity of the cylinder per stroke, while the third 
factor is that of time; or to speak more accurately, the 
quantity of water which is raised by a given number of 
strokes of the plunger, having the area of the cylinder 
and its length, gives us the quantity of water it holds, 
and this is the amount that will be moved or elevated 
at each full stroke of the plunger. The rest depends 
upon the speed of the plunger. To save time for the 
plumber in figuring out the areas of the different size 
pump cylinders, I give here a table of diameters and 
areas from i to 24 inches : 
TABLE OF DIAMETER AND AREAS FROM I TO 24 INCHES. 



Diameter. 


Area. 


Diameter. 


Area. 


Diameter. 


Area. 


I inches. 


•7854 


8% inches. 


60.132 


16% inches. 


213.8251 


1/4 " 


1. 2241 


9 [I 


63 


6.74 


16% " 


220.3537 


1% '' 


1.7671 




67 


2000 


17 " 


226.9806 


2.4043 


70 


8823 


17M ;; 


233-7055 


2 " 


3.1416 


9-A " 


74 


6620 


17^^ " 


240.5287 


2^4 " 


3.9661 


10 ' 


78 


540 


17M ; 


247.4500 


2% " 


4.9087 


10% '' 


82 


516 


18 " 


254.4696 


5-9396 


86 


5903 


18^ " 


201.5872 


3 \l 


7.0C86 


90 


7620 


i8l^ " 


268.8031 




8.296 


II 


95 


0334 


18M " 


275.1221 


3/^ " 


Q.6211 


11I4 " 
11}^ " 


99 


iT 


19 * 


283.5294 


384 " 


11.044 


103 


8691 


i9>4 ^ 


291.0307 


4 " 


12.5664 


"M '' 


108 


4340 


19^ ., 


298.6483 


4?4 


14.186 


12 


113 


0976 


19% 


304-7764 


15.9043 


1214 " 


117 


859 


20 


314 1600 


4% 


17.720 


122 


7180 


20^ " 


322.0630 


V " 


19-63: 


12% " 


127 


6760 


330.0643 




21.647 


^^3 !' 


132 


733 


20% '' 


340.242 


5^ " 


2^-7583 


I3H " 


137 


886 


21 " 


346.3614 


5% '' 


25 967 


133^ i! 


143 


^39 


21I4 " 


354-6571 


6 " 


28.2744 


13M '' 


148 


4890 


363.0511 


6H " 


30.6790 


14 


153 


9384 


21% " 


371-5432 


33-i8ji 


14J4 " 

14% ' 


161 


0536 


22 


380.1336 


6% " 


35784 


16s 


1303 


22}4 " 


388.8220 


7 " 


38.4846 


170 


8735 


22}^ " 


397.6087 


7/4 *' 


41 2821 


15 [[ 


176 


715 


22% " 


406.4935 


7/^ " 


44.1787 




182 


6595 


23 " 


415.4766 


7% '* 


47-173 


153^ " 


188 


6923 


23^ : 


424-556 




50.2656 


15% " 


194 


828-^ 


^3)4 \ 


433-7371 


8I4 " 


53-456 


16 


201 


0624 


23% 


443.0146 


8}^ " 


56-7451 


16^ " 


207.3946 1 


24 


452-3904 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



67 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF WROUGHT-TRON PIPE. 



Sizes 
Inside Diameter. 

1^ inches 

M " 



94 

is 

2 

2^ 



Weight 
Per Foot. 
. . .24 pounds 
.. .42 
.. .56 " 
.. .85 '' 

..1. 12 
..1.67 " 

..2.25 '' 

..2.69 
..3.66 " 

••5-77 " 



Sizes Weight 

Inside Diameter. Per Foot. 

3 inches 7.54 pounds 



3V^ 

4 

4^ 



• 9-05 
.10.72 
.12.49 
.14.56 
.18.77 
.23.41 
.28.35 
•34-07 
.40.64 



TO COMPUTE THE WEIGHT OF PIPES PER FOOT, 

subtract the square of the internal diameter from the square of the external diameter 
in inches, and multiply : 

For Cast-Iron Pipe By 2.45 

For Wrought-Iron Pipe " 2.64 

For Brass Tubes " 2.82 

For Copper Tubes "■ 3.03 

For Lead Pipe " 3.86 



POWER EXERTED. 
To perform a certain amount of work a specific and 
corresponding amount of force or power must be ex- 
pended in all things, and consequently must be the 
same with the raising of water by the use of a pump. 
The necessary power for performing a given amount of 
work, as applied to raising water, is a simple formula, 
which I herewith give. Having found the number of 
gallons raised per minute, multiply this number by 8.35, 
which is the weight of one gallon of water ; then multi- 
ply the product by the height in feet to which the 
water is raised, and it gives the number of foot pounds. 
Divide the product by 33.000 (one horse power), and the 
result is the horse power or its fractional part required 
to do the work. To this there must be some allowance 



58 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

made for friction; about 15 per cent. In wooden pipes 
the friction is i^ times more than in metallic pipes. 
In both the friction is increased in a direct ratio to the 
length very nearly as the square of the velocity of the 
flow and inversely as the diameter of the pipe, thus 
plainly demonstrating that it is the wisest economy to 



Fig- 13. 
use pipes of larger diameter where the question of 
power enters into the calculation, as do the angles at 
which water is to be conducted, a fact verified by prac- 
tical tests. To give a better idea as to the extra 
amount of power required to raise water by the use of 
a pump where the suction pipe varies from a perfectly 
straight line, we will refer to Figs. 13, 14, and 15. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



59 



The relative proportion of power required, as shown 
by figures, is as follows : To force water through a pipe 
laid in a straight line, as in Fig. 13, would be 90, and to 
use a curve or bend, as shown in Fig. 14, 100, and a 
right angle, as in Fig. 15, 140. 

So that it will be seen from this that it is great econ- 
omy to avoid elbows or short bends as much at possible 





Fig. 15. 

in all pipes connected with pumps, whether they are 
the lift or discharge pipes. 

THE LIFT PUMP. 

In Fig. 16 is shown a simple arrangement of the lift 

pump, which is the surest way to draw water from a 

well. In this arrangement the cylinder, plunger, and 

valves are all submerged in the water, with a long rod 



60 



LAWLER's AMERICAN 




Fig. I 6. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 61 

attached to the plunger, and extending to the handle or 
lever on top. 

In this pump (Fig. i6) A is the cylinder, B the 
plunger, C the bottom valve, and D the plunger valve. 
In this case the water of itself would pass in through 
valve C to the cylinder. Therefore, as plunger B is 
moved down to the bottom of the cylinder, the water in 
the cylinder will open valve D in the plunger and fill 
the entire cylinder. The next move is to draw the 
plunger up, and it being fitted closely to the sides of the 
cylinder, and with valve Da perfect fit, the contents of 
the cylinder will have to move into the upright pipe 
above the cylinder. After such an operation the water 
will now stand much higher in the pump pipe than it 
does in the well, and to keep the amount of water in 
the pipe from falling back into the well we bring 
into play valve C, situated at bottom of cylinder. It 
will be seen from this how necessary it is for this valve 
to fit perfectly tight, so that it will not allow any of the 
water which has passed up through it to fall back. 
There is very little difference between this arrangement 
and the common chain and bucket — only as a matter of 
convenience. But this is not always practicable, and, be- 
sides, it costs more than the suction pump, which has 
combined with its body its cylinder, plunger, valves, and 
all other moving parts above the well. 



62 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



THE SUCTION PUMP. 
In Fig. 17 we show another arrangement of the punap, 
and in this we call it the suction pump. It will be 




vs 



Fig. 17. 

noticed by referring to Fig. 17 that the cylinder, plunger, 
and valves are made and arranged in the very same way 
as they are in the arrangement of Fig. 16; and this, the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 63 

mechanic must remember, is the general construction of 
all pumps. But in this arrangement we have more to 
contend with than in Fig. i6. The valves and plunger 
in Fig. 17 must be more perfectly fitted to work satis- 
factorily than in Fig. 16. This now brings us to a place 
where it is necessary to know what the so-called suction 
in a pump means, and also to understand the part which 
the pressure of the atmosphere takes in it. In Fig. 17 
the suction pipe is carried down into the well from the 
bottom of the cylinder and below valve C, and extended 
below the surface of the water in the well ; and to pro- 
tect the valve from being obstructed with dirt of any 
kind that may be in the water it is provided with a fine 
strainer. The mechanic must now understand what the 
atmospheric pressure is, and that it presses at all times 
and in all places on every inch of the earth's surface 
with a pressure of a little over 14)^ pounds, or 14.7 
pounds per square inch. It makes no difference whether 
the surface is water, stone, wood, soil, or anything 
else, the pressure given above is the pressure taken 
at the sea level ; and the higher the elevation may be 
above the sea level, the less the pressure of the atmos- 
phere will be on any surface or substance at such level 
or height. But as this variation of atmospheric pressure 
due to different elevations is not much, we always take 
the sea level, which will answer for all practical pur- 
poses. 

We will now consider that pump Fig. 17 is set and 



64 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

all ready to commence operation. Before we start 
it, I wish to call the student's attention to the small 
arrows in the water, all pointing toward the strainer 
or suction pipe, and' also at the same time to notice the 
small arrows in the pump above the plunger, all 
pointing in the direction of the sides of the cylinder. 
Now, these arrows represent the atmosphere, which has 
just as much pressure practically at the top as it has on 
the surface of the water in the well. We will now start 
to operate the pump, and as everything about the 
pump and pipe is in its natural condition, the cylinder 
below the plunger and the suction pipe below the 
cylinder, and as far as the surface of the water, must be 
filled with air, because there was air in them before they 
were placed in the well, and there has been nothing 
done to take it out. It can now be seen that if this 
suction pipe is filled with air, which it certainly is, water 
cannot be made to fill this pipe and occupy the same 
space at the same time. Therefore, we could never get 
water to pass up through this tube without first re- 
moving the air confined in the suction pipe. And this 
is the first work to be accomplished by the plunger and 
its valves. In operating this pump. Fig. 17, the very 
same action takes place in the workings of the plunger 
and the valves as explained in regard to pump Fig. 16, 
only on the start, and until all the air has been drawn 
out of the suction pipe. Fig. 17 lifts air in place of 
water; but after the air has been all extracted Fig. 17 



SANITARY PLUMBING 65 

works then exactly the same as pump Fig. i6. We 
are now supposed to be operating pump Fig. 17. As 
will be noticed, the water stands about half-way up on 
the inside of the suction pipe from the level of the water 
in the well. Now, this shows that we have pumped out 
about one-half of the air which was in the pipe before 
we started to work the pump, and it must be remem- 
bered that we have not got hold in any way of the 
water that is part way up in the suction pipe, and we 
have nothing at the bottom of the strainer to hold it up. 
Therefore, this should be sufficient proof to the student 
that it is the pressure of the atmosphere forcing the 
water up the suction pipe, which is positively the case. 
The great work of the suction pump to successfully 
raise water is to extract the air from the suction pipe, 
and keep it out, and the atmospheric pressure will do 
the rest to the extent of its pressure, which would force 
water to a height of about 34 feet, if a perfect vacuum 
were found in the suction pipe. 

WHAT IS A VACUUM? 

A vaccum means a space, a cavity, a cylinder, a tube, 
or any vessel entirely empty, without even the air. The 
reason why water will rise to a height of 34 feet where 
a perfect vacuum is produced is because a column of 
water 34 feet high and having an area of one square 
inch weighs about 147 pounds, which exactly balances 
the pressure of the atmosphere on one square inch of 



66 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

surface. The mechanic must also understand that this 
limit of 34 feet for a suction pipe to a pump will not 
work in general practice, for the reason that the 
pump or machine cannot be made perfect enough. 
So the shorter the vertical lift or suction pipe is, the 
better the results will be in the action of the pump. 
I would also state that very few pumps of the ordinary 
make work with much satisfaction where the distance 
between the surface of the water to be raised and the 
bottom of the plunger is more than 20 to 25 feet. I 
wish also to impress on the mind of the reader that, in 
speaking of the distance a pump will suck water, we 
mean the vertical height, no matter what the horizontal 
distance may be. 

DEEP WELL PUMP. 

Fig. 18 shows one way of setting a pump in a well 
which may be 30 or 40 feet deep, and yet work 
with good results. In such cases we would determine 
upon the distance of the suction pipe, so that it would 
be quite practicable, and then locate the cylinder at the 
point desired, or in the well, resting on a proper sup- 
port, as shown, and also proper guides screwed to an 
upright plank, so that a light rod wm'11 answer for the 
work. In such a case as shown in Fig. 18, it is a good 
plan to have two air chambers — one at the bottom, or 
just above the cylinder, and one at the top of the dis- 
charge pipe above the well. The action of this arrange- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



67 




Fig. i8. 



68 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



ment is almost equal to a double-acting pump, or a 
pump with two cylinders, as the air compressed in the 




Fig. 19. 

upper part of the air chambers keeps the flow of the 
water in motion while the plunger is on the down- 
ward stroke, which also makes it very much easier for 



SANITARY PLUMBING 69 

the operator than if there were no air chambers on the 
pipe. 

There are a number of different ways of setting deep 
well pumps, and we show in Fig. 19 another arrange- 
ment of placing a pump in a deep well, with one or two 
points about it that I would like to call the attention of 
the plumber to. There are many things that we all 
know very well, but fail to remember them at the 
proper time, and consequently it is not always lost 
time to be told things that we knew before. What I 
refer to at present are two things in connection with the 
setting of the pump, as shown in Fig. 19. This style of 
pump cannot only be used for wells from 15 to 150 
feet deep, but it can be used with great advantage for 
forcing water to a considerable distance, and with great 
pressure, for many purposes. In setting this arrange- 
ment of pump, if possible we should place the cylinder 
with its plunger entirely submerged in the water, as 
shown. In this case, similar to Fig. 16, the pump 
rod, which connects with the lever and plunger, is 
carried on the inside of the pipe. To guard against the 
water freezing in the pump or pipe in cold weather, a 
small hole about one-eighth of an inch is drilled in the 
pipe, as shown at H, about 5 feet below the platform of 
well, which allows the water to run out of the pump 
and pipe down to that depth after every operation. So 
there will be no water left in it to freeze. As this 
is a deep well, the pipe of course will be quite long, and 



70 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 




Fig. 20. 



SANITARY PLUMBING Yl 

without having either a solid support at the bottom of 
the well to rest on or a brace, as shown at B in Fig. 19, 
there will be considerable vibration in the pipe, and 
it would soon shake itself loose and cause trouble. So 
the best plan is to properly brace the pump pipe in all 
cases. 

THE BORED OR ARTESIAN WEEL. 

In Fig. 20 is shown the general principle of how 
pumps are worked in artesian wells. This kind of well 
is simply a hole drilled or bored down deep enough into 
the earth to reach a water vein, and the pump, pipe, 
cylinder, and rod placed down into the water, and appa- 
tus exactly as pump, Fig. 19. This bored well is gen- 
erally resorted to in rocky locations, as it would be very 
expensive to cut away the rock for an open well. 

THE DRIVE WELL PUMP. 

The drive well is a system of procuring water in 
places where the earth or soil is of a sandy nature, and 
where the bored or the dug well would hardly be prac- 
ticable. This is the most simple kind of well, as it is 
simply a tube or pipe driven down into the sand or earth 
to a point a little below water level, and any kind of 
pump may be used for this purpose. In locations where 
the water is found at a short distance below the surface, 
the common " Pitcher spout " pump, as shown in Fig. 
21, No. I, would answer, and if the water is found at 



72 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 




Fig. 21. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



73 



too deep a point to use No. i arrangement, a cylin- 
der can be used, as shown at No. 2, Fig. 21, and a style 



Fig. 22. 

pump with a larger or more powerful lever used, as 
shown And again, where the distance is quite deep to 



74 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the water level, a still more powerful pump can be used 
and the cylinder placed lower in the ground, as shown 
in Fig. 21, No. 3. On the bottom of the drive well 
pipe is placed a special piece of pipe called a " drive 
well point," which is shown in Fig. 22. 

THE DRIVE WELL POINT. 

This section of the drive well pump is perforated with 
small holes for a distance of about two feet, and is also 
provided with a fine brass wire gauge on the inside to 
keep out the sand, and at the bottom it is provided 
with a piece of solid steel, which extends an inch or 
two up into the tube, having a projection below the 
tube which is considerably larger in diameter than the 
tube, and then tapering to a fine point at the bottom. 
This arrangement of the steel point makes it easy to 
drive down the pipe, as it often penetrates through 
stones and widens out the hole larger than the pipe, 
which allows the pipe to go down with ease. In driving 
these pipes into the ground a malleable iron cap is first 
screwed on to the upper end of the pipe, so as to pro- 
tect the thread, and then a block of wood laid on top 
of cap, which is struck with a heavy sledge-hammer to 
drive the pipe down to its place. The atmospheric 
pressure has just the same action in the elevating of the 
water in the drive well pump as it has in the open well 
pump. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



75 



AIR CHAMBERS ON PUMPS— THE USE OF THE AIR 
CHAMBER. 

In Fig. 23 we show a view of a lift and force pump, 
with the air chamber in section, for the purpose of ex- 




Fig. 23. 

plaining the office of air chambers on pumps. Air 
chambers are, or should be, used on all plunger force 



76 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

pumps, for the reason that more water can be discharged 
through a force pump under pressure in a given time, 
having a properly proportioned air chamber, than can 
be discharged through the same pump without the air 
chamber, and with the same amount of power exerted 
in both cases. Besides, the stream of water coming 
from the pump with the air chamber will be more steady 
or uniform than the other, which is also very desirable 
in the operation of pumps. The air chamber is for the 
purpose of holding a certain quantity of air, hence it is 
called an air chamber. The quantity of air confined in 
the chamber while the pump is in operation has the 
action of a spring. The style chamber shown in Fig. 
23 can be used for different purposes, and still have the 
advantage of the air chamber in each case. This is ac- 
complished by placing a tube on the inside extending 
down from the top, as shown, or casting the chamber in 
that way. By this arrangement we can either draw 
water from the faucet F, as shown, or connect a pipe 
on top of the air chamber by removing cap C. This 
style pump is often used for the purpose of lifting and 
forcing water to supply tanks, which may be situated in 
the attic of the house, while the pump is situated in the 
kitchen, where water is also drawn from it directly ; 
in such cases a stop cock is placed on the tank pipe 
above the air chamber, so that the water may be shut off 
from the tank and drawn direct from the pump. This 
same pump, as shown in Fig. 23, can be used for forcing 



SANITARY PLUMBING 17 

water through a hose in case of fire by connecting the 
hose to faucet F. Referring to the air chamber in the 
sectional cut, A represents the space occupied by the 
air, and the dotted lines marked W represent the water 
in the chamber. This is about how it would look when 
in operation. It will be noticed that at the bottom 
of the air chamber there is placed a valve, V, which is 
just the same as the valve used on the bottom of the 
pump cylinder, and explained in other figures. This 
valve allows the water to pass up through it from the 
pump cylinder, but will not allow any water to fall back 
through it into the cylinder ; it is simply a check valve. 
We will now start the pump. The cylinder of an ordi- 
nary pump for domestic purposes would have a diameter 
of from two to three inches on the inside, but the 
diameter of the outlet, or point from which the water 
was drawn, would not be more than from i to i}^ 
inches. And considering that the cylinder was full of 
water, and water in the air chamber to the height as 
shown, if there was no air pressure in the air chamber, the 
flow of water through the outlet would stop the instant 
the plunger stopped, and would not start until after 
the plunger had been moved to the bottom of the 
cylinder and had started on its way up again ; or, in 
other words, through a force pump without an air 
chamber of some kind there would be no flow of water 
except during the upward motion of the plunger. In 
starting the pump, as stated before, we must first ex- 



78 LAWLER*S AMERICAN 

tract the air in the cyhnder and suction pipe ; therefore, 
^ye pump air first, but we do not extract the air from 
the air chamber, so that the air chamber is also full of 
air before we begin. This air in the air chamber is 
simply the natural atmospheric pressure, as the plunger 
is drawn up with a full cylinder of water, and with the 
ordinary speed of the lever. The water rises faster than 
the open spout or faucet carries it off, and whatever 
pressure is produced by this operation between the out- 
let and the top of the plunger in the pump, that amount 
of pressure will be exerted by the water pressing up 
against the air in the chamber. And as air is quite 
flexible, it is compressed by this pressure of the water, 
and made to occupy about one-half the space which it 
formerly filled. The plunger having now arrived at the 
top of the cylinder, it must stop for an instant, and 
also travel back to the bottom of the cylinder for another 
load of water. While the plunger is on its downward 
stroke there is no water passing out of the cylinder, 
and valve V, at the bottom of the air chamber, is shut 
down, and prevents any water from passing out of the 
air chamber and into the cylinder. Therefore, at this 
point of the operation the air which has been compressed 
up into the upper part of the air chamber gives back the 
power that was used in compressing it, and in doing so 
presses down on the water, and forces it out of the air 
chamber, thus keeping the stream or outward flow of 
water in motion. The air chamber also plays a very 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



79 



important part in the action of the " hydraulic ram " — 
in fact, the ram would be of no use without it. 

THE ROTARY PUMP. 

Another pump much used for domestic and other 
purposes, and which differs in its construction from 
those described, is the " rotary pump " ; a sectional cut 
of one style is shown in Fig. 24. In the rotary principle 




Fig. 24. 

of pump the plunger revolves in place of having the 
up-and-down motion ; and on account of having a con- 
tinuous motion when in operation, it is not necessary 
to have air chambers. The arrows shown in the cut 
indicate the direction in which the pump should be run, 
i. e., inwardly, or toward each other at the top or dis- 
charging orifice. Some of the peculiar advantages of 
the rotary pump over all others may be briefly stated. 
The pistons or plungers require no packing, and hence 



80 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



cannot so easily get out of order. This style of pump 
is not quite as good as the plunger pump where there is 




Fig. 25. 
much of a lift of the water, neither can it be made to 
force water with as great a pressure, for the reason that 



SANITARY PLUMBING 81 

the pistons cannot be made to fit as close to the cylinder 
as the plunger in a plunger pump. 

THE ROTARY PUMP MOUNTED ON A STANDARD. 

The style rotary pump shown in Fig. 25 is one that is 
used quite extensively for domestic use, and, as I stated, 
where the lift is not more than 5 to 10 feet they do 
very satisfactory work, and run a long time without 
requiring repairs. There are many styles of rotary 
pumps, yet they all operate under the same general 
principle. 

Another way of procuring a supply of water for do- 
mestic and other uses is through the agency of the 
** hydraulic ram." This system is more generally used 
in country places where there are found springs, lakes, 
and running streams that can be utilized through this 
wonderful machine. 

THE HYDRAULIC RAM AND ITS PRINCIPLES. 

The cut Fig. 26 represents a hydraulic ram put up 
and in operation, furnishing water for house, cattle, etc. 
The fountain is shown at the right. From thence the 
water is taken through the drive pipe to the ram, 
located in any convenient position not less than 25 to 
50 feet from the fountain. This is necessary, as about 
this length of pipe is required to secure the velocity of 
water requisite to work the ram properly. In cases 



82 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



where it is not practicable, the pipe may be bent in a 
coil 5 or 6 feet in diameter. From the ram the water is 
forced upward through the discharge pipe, as shown, to 
the point of discharge. The ram and pipe should be 
carefully secured against the effects of the frost. 

The simple and effective operation of this machine, 



HYDRAULIC RAM IN OPERATION. 




Fig. 26. 

and its great durability withal, render it the most use- 
ful and valuable apparatus yet developed in the depart- 
ment of hydraulics for elevating water, and conveying it 
to almost any desired distance, depending, however, on 
the amount of fall at disposal. 

It Js practicable where the spring or brook is only 
18 inches higher than the ram ; yet as the height in- 
creases, the more powerful the ram operates, and its 



SANITARY PLUMBING 83 

ability to force water to a greater elevation and distance 
is correspondingly strengthened. The relative height of 
the spring or source of supply above the ram, and the 
elevation to which it is required to raise, determine the 
relative proportion between the water raised and wasted, 
the quantity raised varying according to the height it is 
conveyed with a given fall ; also, the distance the water 
has to be conducted, and consequent length of pipes, have 
some influence on the quantity delivered at the point of 
discharge, as the more extended the pipes through which 
the water has to be forced by the ram, the more friction 
there is to be overcome by additional efforts on the 
part of the machine ; notwithstanding, rams are, fre- 
quently and successfully employed for driving water a 
distance of lOO to 200 rods to an altitude of 100 to 200 
feet above the ram, and severer trials than these, even, 
testify to the indispensability of this almost automatic 
device. A fall of 10 feet from the brook or spring to 
the ram is abundantly sufficient to raise water to any 
point less than 150 feet above the location of the 
machine, while the same amount of fall will also raise 
water to a point considerably higher, though the supply 
of water will be proportionately diminished as the 
height and distance increase. When the requisite 
quantity of water is forthcoming from the ram, oper- 
ating under a certain fall, it is not judicious to give it 
more fall, for by so doing the strain on the machine is 
measurably augmented, those parts doing the labor are 



84 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

overtaxed, and the durability of the apparatus impaired 
and lessened. 

For ordinary purposes it is sufficient to say that in 
conveying water, say, 50 or 60 rods, it may be safely 
calculated that from one-tenth to one-fourteenth of the 
water can be raised and discharged at an elevation ten 
times as high as the fall, or one-seventh part of the 
water can be raised and discharged, say, five times as 
high as the fall applied, and so in like proportion as the 
fall or height is varied. 

Thus, with a fall of 5 feet of every 7 gallons drawn 
from the fountain, one may be raised 25 feet, or half a 
gallon 50 feet. Or, with 10 feet fall, one gallon of every 
14 may be raised to the height of 100 feet, and so in like 
proportion as the fall or height is varied. 

Turns in either drive or discharge pipe should be 
avoided if possible. When it is impossible to set the 
ram without having elbows in the pipes, make the 
elbows as large as may be, so as to place as little 
obstruction to the free and easy flow of the water as 
is practicable. These machines are made of iron and 
brass. The valve and valve stem are made of bronze, 
which has more durable and lasting qualities than any 
other composition. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 

The hydraulic ram is a machine constructed to raise 
water by taking advantage of the impulse or momentum 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



85 





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LAWLER S AMERICAN 



of a current of water suddenly stopped in its course 
and made to act in another direction. 

A simple construction of the hydraulic ram is repre- 
sented in Fig. 27, and its operation is as follows : At 
the end of pipe B, connected with a spring or reservoir, 
A, somewhat elevated, from which a supply of water is 
derived, is a valve, E, of such weight as just to fall when 




Fig. 27. 



the water is quiet or still within the pipe. This pipe is 
connected with an air chamber, D, from which the main 
pipe, F, leads ; this air chamber is provided with a valve 
opening upward, as shown in the cut. Suppose now, 
the water being still within the tube, the valve E to 
open by its own weight ; immediately the stream begins 
to run, and the water flowing through B soon acquires 
momentum or force sufficient to raise the valve E up 
against its seat. The water being thus suddenly arrested 



SANITARY PLUMBING 87 

in its passage would, by its momentum, burst the pipe, 
WIND-MILL IN OPERATION. 




Fig. 28. 
were it not for the other valve in the air chamber D, 
which is pressed upward and allows the water to escape 



88 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

into the air chamber D. The air contained in chamber 
D is condensed by the sudden influx of water, but 
immediately reacting, by means of its elasticity, forces 
a portion of the water up into the tube F. As soon as 
the water in pipe B is brought to a state of rest, the 
valve of the air chamber closes and the valve E falls 
down or opens; again the stream commences running 
and soon acquires sufficient force to shut the valve E. 
A new portion is then, by the momentum of the stream, 
urged into the air chamber and up the pipe F, and by a 
continuance of this action the water will be continually 
elevated in the pipe F. 

A good and simple way of procuring a supply of 
water is by the use of the windmill. When this ma- 
chine is properly constructed it will pump large quanti- 
ties of water, and, like the ram, without cost, as the 
wind is free, and repairs on a good machine of this kind 
are light. In Fig. 28 is shown a tank at T for storing 
the water, from which the water is taken through a pipe 
to the house, thus utilizing the tower to not only store 
the water which is pumped from the well, but secure the 
proper head or pressure of water to flow to the highest 
part of the house. 

RAIN WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. 

Still another way, or system, of securing a proper 
supply of water for domestic use, and one in which the 
plumber must come in contact with more or less, and 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



89 



one which he should thoroughly understand, is the 
filtering rain-water cistern system. As stated before, 
there are many places or localities where there is no 
such a thing as to secure a supply of water other than 
by catching what may fall from the roof of the house 




Fi£-. 29. 

during rainy weather ; and one simple, good, and practical 
arrangement for this purpose is shown in Fig. 29. 

To properly construct a cistern of this kind for the 
place or location intended there are several things that 
we must first of all take into consideration. We should 
build the cistern with a capacity to hold water enough to 
properly supply the house for which it is intended, and, 



90 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

therefore, we should consider the size of the family and 
probable duration of the dry season in such locality, 
and also the number and kinds of plumbing fixtures in 
such a house which are supplied from this source. Such 
a cistern may be located under part of the house, or 
close to the house on the outside for convenience. Two 
very important points to be remembered in the building 
of this cistern are : First, that it is built for the purpose 
of holding water, or storing away water for future use, 
hence it must be built so that it will do what it is in- 
tended for ; and to accomplish this any sort of way will 
not do, but it must be done with the greatest care and 
with good materials. Second, as this cistern is supposed 
to hold clean filtered water for drinking and cooking 
purposes, its walls must not only hold the water in and 
prevent any escape out or loss of water, but they must 
also prevent any outside water from passing in through 
the walls, such as surface water or slop water, which 
may easily find its way through any poorly constructed 
part of the cistern and contaminate the filtered water 
on the inside. The mechanic should now understand 
that it will not answer to simply dig a hole that will 
be large enough to hold a certain amount of water. 
Although a mason is employed to construct the walls of 
such cisterns, they should always be under the super- 
vision of a sanitary plumber, for the reason that the 
sanitary part of this arrangement, as a rule, is never 
considered by the mason. And again, if such a cistern 



SANITARY PLUMBING 91 

was found to be unsanitary, no matter under whose 
supervision it may have been constructed, the plumber 
who may have simply placed a pump in it would be held 
responsible for its unsanitary condition. This state of 
things is surely unfair to the plumber, and yet such is 
positively the case. There is scarcely anything that 
goes wrong with any kind of fixture in the house where 
the plumber has done a dollar's worth of work that will 
not be charged to the fault of the plumber. These are 
some of the reasons why the plumber must be careful 
and thoroughly understand his business in every detail. 
Referring back to Fig. 29, after deciding on the size of 
the cistern, which is generally made square and built of 
good hard-burned brick not less than 8 inches thick, 
laid in good hydraulic cement, also the entire bottom 
of the cistern to be laid with two courses of brick well 
bedded in cement, the cistern is then divided into two 
compartments by an 8-inch brick partition, as shown in 
Fig. 29. One of these compartments is to receive all 
the water from the roof of the house. This compart- 
ment is shown on the left side in the cut, while all the 
water is drawn or pumped from the right side, as shown 
with the pump in place. To make sure that the cistern 
will be perfectly water-tight on the bottom and sides, it 
is well to plaster them over carefully with a good coat 
of the best cement, including the partition or division 
wall, except a space of about 6 inches, or the height of 
the division wall from the bottom, which would be 



92 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

about two coursG-s of the brick, and these should be laid 
close together without cement, so that the water could 
pass through into the right-hand or pump side of the 
cistern. After the cement on the walls of the cistern 
has become hard and properly set, we then proceed to 
arrange the filtering material on the inlet side of the 
cistern ; and it will be noticed that on this side there 
are shown five layers or sections from the bottom up, 
indicated by letters G and C. These represent layers 
of sand and gravel and charcoal, which should be about 
6 inches thick each, and extending over the entire 
bottom of the compartment. The first section is clean 
sand and small gravel, laid on the bottom and extending 
up to a thickness of about 6 inches, carefully leveled. 
Then on the top of this sand and gravel is placed a 
layer or section of good hard-wood charcoal to a thick- 
ness also of about 6 inches ; then another layer of sand 
and gravel, and again another layer of the charcoal, and 
finishing with a layer of sand and gravel at the top, as 
shown. The number of these sections may be used 
according to the amount of water to be filtered. The 
sand and gravel hold the mechanical matter or dirt 
that comes in the water in suspension, and prevent it 
from traveling to the bottom of the cistern and passing 
through into the outlet side, while the charcoal has to 
some extent a chemical effect on the water which passes 
through it, rendering the water wholesome and fit for 
domestic use. It is a very bad thing to have wood of 



SANITARY PLUMBING 93 

any kind connected with any part of a cistern of this 
description; therefore, I would cover such a cistern with a 
good stone flag. 

THE OVERFLOW FROM THE CISTERN. 

It is also necessary to have an overflow pipe from the 
cistern, and in this we must consider a great deal more 
than simply fixing a place for surplus water to escape. 
Referring to Fig. 29, we will notice on the inlet side of 
the cistern, a little distance from the top, is a pipe 
leading out from the side. This is the overflow pipe, 
and in which is placed a trap, as indicated by the letter 
T. This trap is intended to hold water for the purpose 
of preventing any foul air from passing into the cistern, 
even though this pipe is not connected with any sewer 
or waste pipe, which it should never be in any case ; 
but there are slops thrown on the ground around a 
house by careless servants and others, from which bad 
air arises, and could easily find its way into the cistern 
if it was not for the water in the trap. This overflow 
pipe from the cistern should also be provided with a 
carefully fitted brass strainer, so that insects, toads, 
mice, and even rats, could not utilize it for a runway. 
As may be noticed in Fig. 29, the water is conveyed 
from the eaves of the house through pipes which join 
each other and lead to the cistern, as shown. 



94 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

THE CUT-OFF. 
A very good thing to use on such a system is the 
cut-off. This is a device placed on the conductor pipe, 
just before it enters the cistern and above the surface, 
for the purpose of diverting the flow of rain water from 
going into the cistern, and allowing it to fall on the sur- 
face of the ground instead. 

WHEN THE CUT-OFF SHOULD BE USED. 
The cut-off on the conductor pipe should be turned 
to throw the water on to the surface just before a 
shower of rain, and allowed to remain in this position 
for a short time after the rain has started to fall, so that 
the dust and bird manure which may have collected on 
the roof and in the gutters of the house will not be 
carried into the cistern. And after the first little shower 
of rain the cut-off may be turned in the direction of the 
cistern and allow the water to flow in. We have now 
considered some of the fundamental principles of water, 
and especially connected with plumbing arrangements, 
and also considered some of the sources of water supply, 
such as the plumber is expected to engineer himself. 
This I have done with the hope and expectation that 
the student may better understand the more practical 
things to follow. 

THE plumber's KIT OF TOOLS. 
The plumber himself would scarcely believe that his kit 
of tools numbered so many pieces if he did not often see 



SANITARY PLUMBING 95 

them all laid out to his view, much less other persons. In 
plate Fig. 30 is shown the principal tools used by the 
plumber in his work, and although the number shown 
is about sixty, there are perhaps as many more of still 
different kinds used in the plumbing trade. 

This brings to my mind one of the unfair complaints 
brought against the plumber, and that is in the case 
where he is sent for to make some repairs, and after 
finding out the nature of the trouble or repairs necessary, 
he also discovers, although he has a heavy bagful of 
tools, there is nothing among them that will answer for 
the repairs or work to be done, and consequently he 
must either go back himself or send his helper to the 
shop for the tools necessary. The plumber is then 
credited with doing this intentionally in order to put in 
more time on the job, and make the bill as large as 
possible. The customer will listen to no explanation 
on this point, and forever believes the plumber posi- 
tively robbed him. And again the plumber has the 
same trouble in regard to carrying the necessary ma- 
terial for repairs. It is impossible for him to know 
what materials are required before he knows what the 
trouble is, and yet this is what the customer expects 
him to know. 

There is still another thing that is not satisfactory to 
the plumber's customers, and one about which they are 
continually finding fault, and considers it the worst 
piece of imposition practiced by the plumber, and that 



96 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

is for the plumber to take a helper with him on every 
job, no matter what is to be done, whether it is simply 
to put on a washer or put in a new kitchen boiler. You 
can never make the customer believe that this practice 
is for his interest, which all plumbers of practical ex- 
perience know it is. 

A WORD TO THE APPRENTICE, OR PLUMBER'S HELPER. 

The plumber's helper has some special work to per- 
form which he must always remember as long as he is a 
helper, and not have to be reminded of it occasionally. 
One of these duties is to properly look after and take care 
of the plumber's tools. I have placed the plumber's kit 
of tools, all laid out, as shown in Fig. 30, for the benefit 
of the apprentice. The helper should know the number 
and kind of every tool owned by the plumber he helps. 
In going to or from work on foot it is the custom for 
the helper to carry the tools, and also the firepot, 
while the plumber or journeyman carries the solder 
pot, which is not so cumbersome, but generally quite 
heavy. If the plumber should at times see fit to carry 
some of the tools, that will be all well and good for the 
boy, but the boy should not find fault when the tools 
are to be carried some distance, and the plumber does 
not feel like assisting in carrying the load. 

Before leaving the shop the boy should count the 
number of tools he is taking with him, and before 
leaving the house or building in which work has been 



SANITARY PLUMBING 97 

completed the boy should count his tools again, and see 
he has the number of pieces he brought. I call his 
attention to this point for two reasons : First, to guard 
against losing any of the plumber's tools ; and, secondly, 
to guard against taking any tools that did not belong to 
the plumber, but which belonged to the house or the 
customer for which the work was being done. It often 
happens that a wrench, a hammer, a saw, or a screw- 
driver, all of which may be found in any man's house, 
is picked up with the plumber's tools and taken to the 
shop by mistake, and not discovered by the plumber or 
his helper until the customer has reported at the shop 
to the proprietor, that the plumbers who were doing 
some work at his house stole some of his tools, and 
must have them returned, or he will send in a bill for 
them. This is a place where he not only gets himself 
in trouble, but every other person connected with the 
shop, and all through a little carelessness of the boy. 
After arriving at the building to begin a piece of work, 
the boy should spread out the tools in a dry, clean place, 
as shown in Fig. 30, so that he could see at a glance 
any tool that might be called for by the plumber, and 
be able to hand it to him in the quickest possible 
time. 

And again, as soon as the plumber is finished with 
any certain tool, the boy should place it back in rotation 
again, and always keep them together in neat shape. It 
is the helper's business and duty to also keep the tool§ 



98 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

perfectly clean, and not allow any of them to remain 
soiled or become rusty. 

ONE OF THE FIRST JOBS OF PLUMBING. 

We will now begin some practical work, and our first 
job will be to set a hydrant. This is a simple piece of 
work, and one which the average plumber can look back 
to and remember that it was one of his first jobs. To 
set a hydrant is of course simple, and in fact many per- 
sons would think that it amounted to nothing in regard 
to knowledge required ; but let us set one, and try to do 
it properly, and then I think we will come to the con- 
clusion that it is not so easy, and also that it requires a 
little practical judgment. 

The hydrant has long held a prominent place in the 
line of plumbing fixtures, and for many places it will 
still continue to hold its own for a long time yet to 
come. And like other plumbing fixtures, it has been 
very much improved. The hydrants for domestic use 
were all made by the plumbers until within the last few 
years, and were principally made of wood and lead, 
which gave the plumber a considerable amount of shop 
work. The plumber no longer makes the hydrant, but 
simply sets it. 

The old style hydrant had some very poor points in 
it, the work of which was the necessity of having to dig 
it up and, in fact, take it all apart in order to put on a 
washer, And to do this would generally cost at least 



SANITARY PLUMBING 99 

half the price of a new hydrant, not speaking of the 
great annoyance of continually rooting up the yard, in 
which the hydrant was set. 

In Fig. 31 is represented the general principles of a 




Fig. 31. 

good make of modern hydrant, and, like all other 
plumbing appliances, the plumber should thoroughly 
understand every detail about them. In the first place, 
as the h3^drant is intended to be used out of doors, or in 
cold or unheated barns, stables, and such places, it 
is necessary to locate the valve low down in the ground, 



100 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

and so constructed that when the hydrant is not in use 
there will be no water standing in the pipe or any part 
of it above the valve. It will then be proof against 
freezing in cold weather. The arrangement of the parts 
in the hydrant shown in Fig. 31 is such that the pipe 
which conducts the water up from the valve to the 
nozzle is part of the valve itself, and moves up and 
down as the valve is raised from, or moved back, to its 
seat. The deliver}^ P^P^ is surrounded by a casing or 
tube of large diameter, which allows the delivery pipe 
to move freely and at the same time protects it from the 
earth and dirt. At the top of casing C is a cap (A), 
to which is fitted a long screw having a wheel or handle 
on its upper end and connected at its lower end by a 
swivel joint to the discharge pipe. This simply makes 
it a long compression cock. At the lower end of the 
valve is the usual washer of leather, rubber, or fibre, 
which can be renewed at short notice and little ex- 
pense by simply unscrewing the nozzle and removing 
cap A, which may be held to the casing by either a 
thread connection or a set screw. The cap removed, 
the plunger can then be drawn up (which holds the 
washer) and a new washer put on. Referring to Fig. 31, 
\V indicates the waste from the valve. This is a small 
opening which is closed during the operation of the 
hydrant, and therefore does not allow the water to 
waste directly from the supply pipe ; but as soon as the 
hydrant is closed, the valve plunger moves down and 



SANITARY PLUxMBING 101 

opens the port to the waste, as shown. In setting the 
hydrant the plumber must take into consideration the 
nature of the ground or soil in which it is to be set, for 
the reason that the nature of some soil is such that it 
will not absorb or carry off the waste water. For exam- 
ple, if we set a hydrant in a clay ground, it would not 
soak the water, and it would stand in the hydrant as 
high and perhaps higher than the surface of the ground, 
and in such a case would freeze in the winter. There- 
fore, in such places there must be some special means 
of carrying away this waste water from the bottom of 
the hydrant, either by a waste pipe or a blind drain. 
The plumber must also be careful (in setting the 
hydrant) to place around the valve at the bottom some 
small stones or gravel, in order- to allow the water to 
pass out freely from the waste hole and not to be 
clogged by fine dirt. 

THE SERVICE PIPE; CONNECTING TPIE SERVICE PIPE 
TO THE STREET MAIN. 

We will now introduce the water into the house, 
carrying it through the service pipe from the main pipe 
in the street. This is another piece of work which the 
plumber must do with care, or trouble will soon follow. 

In Fig. 32 is shown a section of a street, with the 
service pipe connected to the main water pipe (which is, 
as a rule, located near the centre of the street), and the. 



102 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



service pipe carried in through the cellar v/all of the 
house, with a stop and waste cock on the inside, as 
shown. We will be able to show many points of great 
importance from this one illustration or sketch, Fig. 32. 
No matter what kind of pipe we may use to convey the 
water from the street main to the house, we should 




Fig. 32. 



carefully block it up at the service cock close to the 
main, as shown, so that any pressure of the earth above 
could not break the connection or strain the cock. To 
do this properly the earth under the pipe should be 
rammed down solid, and, after the connections are made, 
the pipe at this point should be blocked up with some 
sound wooden blocks. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 103 

THE GALVANIZED IRON SERVICE PIPE. 

In places where we use galvanized iron pipe for this 
purpose, we should in all cases connect to the main 
service cock with a short piece of lead pipe two or three 
feet long, as shown, for the reason that the lead will 
give and sag with the pressure of the earth without 
breaking off or causing trouble. The balance of the 
service line should also be carefully bedded, in order 
that there will be no uneven strain on the pipe at any 
point. 

CONNECTING LEAD PIPE WITH IRON PIPE. 

In connecting lead pipe with iron pipe we should in 
all cases use brass nipples, as shown in Fig. 32, and not 
simply wipe on to the iron, for two good reasons. If 
we wipe on lead pipe to a galvanized iron pipe we will 
spoil our solder in coming in contact with the zinc on 
the galvanized pipe, and what may be left in the solder 
pot after making the joint might as well be thrown 
away, because it would cost as much to properly clean 
it and make it fit for work again as new or clean metal, 
and perhaps more, if we consider our time worth any- 
thing. This kind of joint wiped directly on to the 
galvanized pipe in its best make will also be a bad joint, 
because the zinc in it will have made it coarse, and 
most likely it will be a sweaty joint. Perhaps the 
worst point in connecting lead to iron is in the fact that 



104 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the iron soon sets in a rust, and in a short time the 
solder pulls away from the iron ; and this is especially 
so where we connect lead pipes direct by solder to hot- 
water pipes. Therefore, it pays to do it right, and in 
all cases use brass nipples, one end of which is wiped to 
the lead pipe and the other end screwed to the iron 
pipe. These are called soldering nipples. We will 
now consider that the service pipe has been laid through 
the street and into the house through the cellar wall, 
as shown in Fig. 32. It will be necessary to have 
another stop-cock in the line of service pipe, and this 
extra one should be located in some place easy of 
access, so that there could be no trouble in getting at it 
to shut off the water in case of necessity ; and at the 
same time it should be protected from frost in cold 
weather. Many people have the house stop-cock located 
on the service pipe on the outside of the building near 
the curbstone, with a stop box and rod carried to a 
level of the sidewalk. I have found more trouble with 
this than any other arrangement, and therefore do not 
recommend an outside stop-cock. The very time we 
want to use it in a great hurry, which is in cases of 
burst pipes in the house, or something overflowing, we 
will find the stop-cock box covered over with ice and 
snow, and very often we will have to dig for it quite a 
while before we can even find out where it is located. 
And then again when we do find it, in nine cases out of 
ten we will find it out of order, or the stop-cock box filled 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



105 



up with ice or dirt ; therefore, I would place the stop- 
cock on the inside of the cellar wall. If the cellar of the 
house is cold, so that a pipe exposed to its atmosphere 
might freeze, and in places where the service pipe comes 
in above the cellar floor, as shown in Fig. 32, the stop-cock 
can be boxed up as shown, and covered over with hair 
felt, or some other good non-conducting substance 




Fig. 33. 

packed around it. This stop-cock should have a waste 
in it, so that when shut off from the house all water 
standing in the pipes could be drained out. In protect- 
ing pipes against freezing it is a good plan to p'ack them 
around ; then also where they pass through floors, as 
shown in Fig. 32, rising from the cellar to the first floor, 
as this is always a cold place. 



106 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

STOP AND WASTE COCK IN A BOX BELOW CELLAR 
FLOOR. 

In places where the service pipe comes in below the 
cellar floor the stop and waste cock can be located, 
as shown in Fig. 33, 18 inches or so below the cellar 
bottom, with a small box around it and a hinged cover. 
In this case it will not be necessary to use packing 
around the cock. The passage way to these cocks should 
never be obstructed ; there should always be a clear 
passage way to the stop-cocks in order that there will 
be the least possible time lost or spent in shutting off the 
water in case of an accident. 

TWO GENERAL SYSTEMS OF COLD WATER SUPPLY FOR 
DOMESTIC PURPOSES — THE DIRECT SUPPLY AND 
THE INDIRECT OR TANK SUPPLY. 

By the direct supply we connect to each fixture, 
as the pipe is carried along from the street main, to the 
highest or last fixture in the house, and in this case we get 
at each fixture, according to its location, whatever pressure 
there may be in the street main. This is not a desirable 
thing to have, as the street pressure in many places is 
uneven, and especially where the water is pumped into 
the street mains. This uneven pressure is bad on the 
different plumbing fixtures in the house, and causes 
them to give trouble much sooner than they would if 
the pressure of water was always the same. It is also 



SANIT.\RY PLUMBING 107 

a very bad thing, and hard on the pipes and fixtures of 
the house or building, to have connected direct to the 
service pipe any kind of power pump that is to take its 
supply of water from the supply pipe direct. The 
action of the pump causes sudden jars in the pipe, which 
also cause great expense and trouble. The direct sup- 
ply system will do very well for plumbing fixtures 
where the pressure is not more than 30 or 40 pounds 
per square inch. 

THE INDIRECT OR TANK SUPPLY SYSTEM. 

This system for domestic purposes is by far the best, 
considering it from many points of view. In this sys- 
tem, in place of connecting direct to the plumbing 
fixtures, as the pipe is carried through the house from 
the street it is carried direct to a tank located at some 
high point, or in the attic of the house, and all the water 
to be used in the house discharged into the tank. This 
direct supply of water is regulated by a ball or float 
cock in the tank, the tank being open on top to the 
atmosphere. All the different plumbing fixtures in the 
house are supplied from the tank, and therefore have 
only the pressure tp contend with due to the height of 
water in the tank. The pressure is all that is required 
for domestic use. It is also perfectly steady, as its head 
never varies. 

Pipes and plumbing fixtures in a hoube with the 



108 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



tank system will last much longer and at all times give 
better results than where they are connected with the 
direct heavy supply. The tank system is also good to 




Fig. 34. 

use as a small storage tank, to keep up the supply in 
cases of repairs in the street main, when it becomes 
necessary to make such, and in many cases this happens 
quite often. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 109 

Referring to Fig. 34 will give us the general principles 
of how the system works. On the right-hand side of 
the cut is shown the service pipe, carried direct from the 
street to the tank in the attic, and there connected to 
the ball cock. There should also be a stop cock on this 
line, as shown, near the ball cock, so that considerable 
time would be saved when repairs are to be made in or 
around the tank, in not having to go down into the 
cellar to shut off the water. 

WHAT THE TANKS ARE MADE OF. 

Tanks for this purpose may be and are made of many 
different kinds of material ; also of many different 
shapes and sizes, according to circumstances and con- 
ditions. They are built of heavy woodwork or planks', 
and bolted or braced together by iron rods and nuts, 
then lined with the different metals, such as sheet zinc, 
sheet copper, sheet lead, and sometimes galvanized 
sheet iron. The only metal I would recommend for 
the lining of wooden tanks for house purposes is sheet 
copper or sheet lead ; sheet zinc or sheet iron rusts or 
rots out too soon and does not pay. If sheet copper is 
used for the lining of tanks it should be tinned on the 
inside, so that it would have no bad effect on the water. 
If the tank to be lined with copper is a large one, there 
will be some difficulty in making the seams perfectly 
tight unless great care is taken. This is a piece of 
important work that requires the best experienced sheet 



110 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

metal worker, for the reason that in large tanks there 
will be no chance to turn them on their sides in order 
to solder the upright seams, and consequently the 
upright seams will have to be soldered in a perpendicular 
position. 

A good and reliable way to put copper linings into 
such tanks is to have all double seams or lock seams, 
because at such joints there is always a good chance to 
properly nail the sheet metal to the wood, which not 
only holds solidly the edge through which the nails pass 
but the outer edge which is locked in, and when ham- 
mered down closely makes it much easier to solder the 
seam. 

In Fig. 35 is shown a plan of the wooden tank, look- 
ing down into it from the top, which shows the sides 
and ends of the tank with the sheet copper in place, 
formed in two pieces and slipped down separately, with 
the edges open, as shown, and also having the bottom 
edge turned out far enough to lock to the bottom lining, 
and allowing enough in height to turn over the top edge 
of the tank. It is sometimes possible to form up the 
sides and ends, so that only two upright seams are left to 
be soldered when in place. Then again, it is often 
necessary to have more than two, so that the same plan 
can be carried out, no matter what the size may be ; 
after the upright seams have been properly locked and 
hammered down, it will be ready for soldering, and for 
this piece of work we should use a good heavy solder- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



111 



ing iron, well tinned, also a good quality of fine solder. 
The seams, of course, must be perfectly clean, both in- 



CfQ" 




side and out, so that the solder can be well sweated 
into the joints. In soldering tinned copper, we may use 
a good quality of rosin or diluted muriatic acid applied 



112 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



on the seams, and begin to solder from the top of the 
tank downwards. After the sides and ends of the lining 




have been placed, we then lay in the bottom, which may 
be in one piece, or it may be placed in position before 



SANITARY PLUMBING 113 

the sides and ends. The bottom should also have the 
edge turned up all around and extending an inch or so 
from the sides of the tank, as shown in Fig. 36. 

This bottom turned-up edge should then be nailed all 
around, as shown. All nails should have their heads 
covered by the copper for good w^ork. The extended 
edges of the sides and ends at the bottom are then 
locked in, as shown, then hammered down. The bottom 
seams will now be ready for soldering, which must be 
done carefully, allowing the solder to soak well into the 
seams. 

THE LEAD-LINED TANK. 

Tanks and cisterns are also lined with sheet lead, and 
I might say that this was the first material used for the 
linings of wooden tanks. Sheet lead for this purpose 
answers very well in regard to its lasting qualities. 
When a good weight is used, say six pounds to 
the square foot, a tank lined with this material, having 
all the joints and seams in it properly wiped by an 
experienced plumber who understands this branch of 
the trade, will last at least fifty years in daily use, and 
may even then be in good shape. At the present time 
we have very little of the lead-lined tank work in this 
country. And there are many reasons for this, some of 
which I will state. 

In the first place, I wish to state that the plumber 
has been robbed of this important plumbing work by 



114 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

manufacturers of cast and wrought iron tanks, which 
are mostly used now for this work. Their excuse is 
that anything is better than sheet lead for a lining for 
tanks from a sanitary point of view. I differ very much 
with them on this point, and I claim that the properly 
made lead-lined tank is better than any other material at 
present used for cold-water house tanks from a sanitary 
or hygienic standpoint ; and what I have to say on this 
subject comes from many years of practical contact and 
close observance of just such matters, and not taken 
from theory or supposition. 

Let us consider sheet lead in regard to a sanitary 
point of view when practically used as a lining in a cold- 
water house tank. Lead is a poison, and when a certain 
amount of it is taken into the human system it might 
cause death. Galvanized iron, zinc, and copper are also 
poisonous metals, and might do the same thing. Under 
the same practical work or circumstances these three 
last-named metals are the most poisonous, and will also 
wear out much sooner than the sheet lead. 

COLD WATER PROTECTS LEAD. 

Cold water has a protecting effect on sheet lead, and 
where lead-lined tanks are kept practically filled at all 
times there will be no danger from poisoning. There is 
danger in such tanks if they are allowed to dry at times; 
this is where the trouble comes in. When the body of 
water is drawn off from a tank the sides are, of course, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 115 

left wet ; this dampness on the sides and ends, also the 
bottom, if the tank has been entirely emptied, forms 
oxide of lead ; or, in other words, the lead begins to 
corrode, and gradually eats away, which it would not do 
if at all times covered with the water. We occasionally 
hear of lead poisoning from drinking water which has 
passed through lead pipes. This may be true, but if we 
properly investigate the matter, we would find that the 
lead pipe had been standing dry for a considerable length 
of time just previous to conveying the water which does 
the deadly work. 

All practical plumbers of much experience know that 
lead water pipes, after being in use many years, either 
covered up in the ground or exposed, show scarcely any 
wear on the inside, while the outside in many cases, 
especially where they have been lying in a sort of dry 
earth or soil, is corroded. Another reason why the lead- 
lined tank is not used at the present day is because the 
average plumber does not know how to do the work. 
He does hot get enough of practice in that line, and 
therefore lets it alone. 

THE CAST-IRON SECTIONAL TANK. 

The cast-iron tank is made in pieces or sections, and 
can be had in most any size or shape to suit the situa- 
tion. In this tank there is no wood used, except for 
a good solid foundation, and then the plates are made 
to fit and bolt to each other, using cement in the joints. 



116 



LAWLER's AMERICAN 



In Fig. 37 is shown one style of cast-iron house tank, 
made by the well-known J. L. Mott Iron Works, New 




York City. The plates are sections, as will be noticed, 
made in convenient sizes, so that they may be handled 
easily, and conveyed to any part of the house through 



SANITARY PLUMBING 117 

small openings without the slightest difficulty. This is 
a very good point in favor of the cast-iron sectional 
house tank, and besides it requires no specially skilled 
mechanic to set it up. This make of tank is practically 
indestructible. 

There are also wrought-iron tanks used for this pur- 
pose, but they cannot be handled with the same ease, 
nor can they be made to suit the different situations so 
well as other makes mentioned above. 

OVERFLOW PIPE FROM THE TANK. 

Before we leave the question of house tanks, I wish to 
impress on the mind of the plumber the importance of 
a proper overflow pipe properly connected, no matter 
how it may be supplied, having a proper overflow large 
enough to carry off, without coming too near to the 
top of the tank, the largest quantity of water that would 
ever be possible to enter it. Another very important 
thing in connection with this overflow pipe is not only 
in what manner it is connected to the tank, and its 
size, but to what and where the lower end is connected. 

The overflow from a house tank should never be con- 
nected direct to a sewer or soil pipe, even with traps, 
for the reason that water may not flow down one of 
these pipes once in a year, and, consequently, a trap 
depending simply on its water seal to prevent sewer gas 
from entering the tank would never do for this purpose. 
The water would in a very short time evaporate entirely 



118 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



from the trap, and leave the channel free for the sewer 
gas to do its deadly work. Therefore, in all cases let the 
lower end mouth of the overflow pipe be open to the 
pure atmosphere or drop over some fixture which is in 
constant use. 



NEWLY DISCOVERED METALS OF UNCERTAIN 
PROPERTIES. 



Idumium. 
Davyum. 
Mosandrum. 
Holmium. 



Samarium. 

Norwegium. 

Vesbium. 

Neptunium. 



Lavoisium. 
Uralium. 
Barcenium. 
Columbium. 



Rogerium. 
Comesium. 
Actinium. 
Ya—Yb. 



MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME OF THE LEADING 

METALS. 



Order of Hardness. 



Platinum. 




Tin. 


Iron. 




Selenium. 


Antimony. 

Copper. 

Silver. 




Bismuth. 
Lead. 


Gold. 






Zinc. 






Aluminum. 








-Mallea 


....... 


Hammered. 


Rolled. 



Order of Tenacity. 



Lead o, i 

Tin 1.3 

Gold 5.6 

Zinc 8 

Silver 8.9 

Platinum 13 

Copper 17 

Iron 26 



Lead. 

Tin. 

Gold. 

Zinc. 

Silver. 

Copper. 

Platinum. 

Iron. 



Gold. 

Silver. 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

Platinum. 

Iron. 



Ductility. 



Platinum. 

Silver. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Gold. 

Zinc. 

Tin. 

Lead. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



119 



THE METALS AND THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 



Name. 



Osmium , 

Iridium 

Platinum 

Gold , 

Uranium , 

Tungsten 

Mercury , 

Ruthenium 

Rhodium 

Thallium 

Palladium 

Lead 

Silver 

Bismuth 

Copper 

Molybdenum 

Cadmium 

Cobalt 

Nickel 

Iron 

Thorium , . .. . 

Indium 

Tin 

Manganese 

Zinc 

Chromium ,...., 

Cerium 

Antimony 

Didymium 

Niobium 

Tellurium 

Lanthanum 

Gallium 

Arsenic 

Vanadium 

Zirconium 

Barium 

Aluminum 

Strontium 

Columbium 

Glucinum (Beryllium) 

Caesium 

Magnesium 

Calcium 

Rubidium 

Water 

Sodium , 

Potassium 

Lithium 

Erbium 

Selenium 

Titanium 

Tantalum 

Yttrium 

Terbium 





Si 


. 






.06 . 

Ill 


198.6 


22.477 


0.031 1 


3992 


152 




198 


22.4 


0.0326 


3992 


1,429 




196.7 


21.46 


0.0324 


3592 


1,167 


10.5 


197 


19-265 


0.0324 


2990 


645 


77-9 


240 


18.33 


0.0619 


3632 






184 


16.54 


0.0334 


4352 






199.8 


13-595 


0.0333 


—40 


.... 


1.63 


103.5 


12.26 


0.0611 


3935 


1,038 




104. 1 


12.1 


0.0588 


3935 


1,176 




203.6 


11.86 


0.0335 


529 


331 


9.30 


106.2 


11.4 


0.0593 


3632 


1,000 




207 


11.256 


0.0314 


617 


351 


8.32 


107.66 


10.4 


0.0570 


1832 


524 


100 


210 


9.82 


0.0308 


507 


719 


1. 19 


63.4 


8.94 


0.0952 


1990 


581 


94.4 


95-6 


8.6 


0.0722 


3632 






112 


8.546 


0.0506 


442 


428 


22.10 


58.8 


^•5 


0.1069 


3272 


809 


17.22 


58.6 


8.297 


0.109 


2912 


781 


13.11 


56 


7-844 


0.1138 


2012 


819 


16.81 


231-5 


7-5 







.... 


.... 


75-6 


7.42 


0.2934 


176 


237 




117.8 


7.29 


0.0562 


442 


462 


11.05 


55 


7-14 


0.0722 


3452 


371 




64.9 


6.915 


0.0956 


707 


321 


29 


52 


6.81 


O.IOO 


3992 






92 


6.728 


0.0447 




.... 




120.3 


6.715 


0.0508 


842 


923 


33-76 


95 


6-544 


0.0456 








94 


6-3 










128 


6.25 


0.0475 


752 


596 


.... 


93-6 


6.166 


00448 








69.9 


5-9 


0.079 


86 






75 


5-7 




.... 


788 




51.2 


5-5 




3992 






90 


4-15 




887 


.... 


.... 


137 


4 




1562 


• . . • 




27-5 


2.583 


o.«i43 


.... 


450 


19.6 


87.2 


2-5 








6.71 


94 


2.1 




.... 






9.4 


2 


0.64 


.. . 




.... 


133 


1.88 










24 


1-743 


0.250 


1382 


.... 


25-47 


40 


1-578 




1562 




22.14 


85.2 


1-52 


.... 


13s 


.... 




22.99 


0-9735 


0.293 


194 


.... 


37.42 


39-04 


0.875 


0.166 


136 




20.83 


..I 6 


0.594 


0.9408 


374 




»9 


7^ 
48 

182 


.... 


0.0701 




271 




.... 


.... 








'] 


:::: 






;.:: 





85 

100 
73-6 



120 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



HOT WATER SUPPLY. 



The modern house is also equipped with an auto- 
matic system of hot water supply to the different sinks, 
bath tubs, laundry tubs, and basins throughout the 
house, as well as being supplied with cold water. 
Therefore we will now take up the question of hot 
water, so that we may fully understand the general 
principles involved to properly carry out this branch of 
the work. We have quite fully considered the question 
of cold water, and I have tried to make plain to the 
mechanic the scientific points and principles, such as its 
pressure due to height, etc., all of which hold good for 
hot water. But we are now considering quite another 
question ; therefore I consider that a little instruction 
or explanation in regard to the principle or cause of the 
circulation of hot water would first be in order. And 
as space is limited in this book to properly treat this 
subject, I could not do better than recommend to any 
person desirous of going into the subject of hot water 
circulation more fully to purchase a copy of my late 
work on " Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting," 
published also by the publishers of this book. It is con- 
sidered one of the standard practical works of the times, 
and is highly recommended by the press. Its sale has 
been so large in such a short time that the publishers 
are already at work on the second edition. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



121 



THE EXPANSION OF WATER. 

Water, like all other substances, expands and con- 
tracts, according to its change in temperature; and as 
the particles of water move over each other without 




Fig. 38. 

friction, and as each separate particle of water has 
its own specific weight according to its own individual 
temperature, we can easily see that, according to the law 
of gravitation, the particle of water having the least spe- 
cific weight would rise to the highest point in a vessel, 



122 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

and the particle of water in the same vessel having the 
most specific weight would fall to the lowest point. 
This great principle has been taken advantage of and 
brought into practical use through the arrangement of 
the water-back, and the kitchen range boiler. 

In Fig. 38 is shown the ordinary arrangement of the 
kitchen boiler, the water-back, and pipes for a successful 
hot-water heating and circulating system for household 
use. The boiler and water-back are shown in sections in 
order to explain the workings of the inside. In the 
boiler (as will be noticed) is a tube or pipe extending 
down from the top, and represented by dotted lines. 
This is the cold-water supply to the boiler, and dis- 
charges the water within a few inches of the bottom of 
the boiler. The distance which this tube should extend 
down from the top of the boiler depends upon where 
the pipe from the upper part of the water-back enters 
the boiler. The cold water should always enter the 
boiler at some distance below the point of the entrance 
of the hot water to the boiler. And the greater the 
distance the better will be the circulation and the 
less time it will take to heat a certain amount of water. 
Referring to Fig. 38, the direction of the arrows shows 
the direction of the movement of the water as it passes 
down through the bottom connection of the boiler, and 
aiong the lower pipe to the lower part of the water-back 
or heater. We will now suppose the boiler, water-back, 
and all pipes filled with water ; that is, the water is turned 



SANITARY P],UMBTNG 123 

on and all air has been drawn from the boiler and pipes. 
We will also suppose that we have no heat or fire in the 
range, so that everything would stand cold. Under 
these circumstances the v/ater would be practically at a 
standstill ; that is,- there would be no circulation going 
on. Before we go further, I would like to call atten- 
tion to the fact that, whatever pressure we have in the 
cold-water pipe per square inch, we must naturally have 
also in the boiler and in the water-back. And, again, I 
wish to state that, in regard to this arrangement of heat- 
ing water, it makes no difference what the pressure might 
be, whether it is only ten pounds, or as high as one hun- 
dred pounds per square inch. So that I wish to impress 
upon the mind that pressure does not cause the circula- 
tion of hot water in the kitchen range boiler. Refer- 
ring again to Fig^ 38, it will be noticed that the water- 
back has two connections, one above the other, and the 
upper connection has a pipe leading to the boiler and 
connected a few inches above the bottom of the cold- 
water pipe. The top of the boiler is also provided with 
an outlet, which has no tube to it, and which is to con- 
vey the hot water to the different parts of the house. 

TO BEGIN THE CIRCULATION. 

We will now light the fire in the range and heat the 
water-back. Just as soon as the water-back has in- 
creased in temperature, part of its heat is transmitted 
to the water on the inside, and as the particles of water 



12tl: LAWLER's AMERICAN 

have received some of the water-back's heat, they at once 
expand according to the amount of heat received, and 
at this instant begin to move. Now, having the boiler, 
water-back, and pipes all properly arranged (as shown) 
so as to give the least resistance to the flow of hot 
water — or, in other words, to assist the hot water to flow 
in its natural course as much as possible — the move- 
ments of the hottest particles of water will naturally be 
in an upright or vertical direction, and therefore move 
in the direction as shown by the arrows in Fig. 38. As 
these hot particles of water ascend to the highest point, 
they make room at the lowest point for the coldest par- 
ticles to take their places, and thus the circulation is 
kept up, just like the revolving of a wheel, as long 
as there is any difference between the temperature 
of the water on the inside of the boiler and the out- 
side atmosphere surrounding it. The kitchen boiler 
is not a heater ; it is simply a storage tank to keep a sup- 
ply of hot water on hand so that it can be drawn when 
required. In this arrangement we can have hot water 
(according to the capacity of the boiler) long after the 
fire has been extinguished in the range, as it stores 
itself by the law of gravitation at the upper part of the 
boiler, and is forced out by cold water entering at the 
bottom and remaining there without mingling with or 
cooling the hot water in the upper part of the boiler. 
The plumber should now understand that the natural 
course of hot water, when confined in a vessel and 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



125 



depending for its motion on the difference between its 
temperature and the temperature of other water in the 
same vessel, is in a perfectly perpendicular or vertical 
direction. And consequently when we arrange our heat- 




This pipe sagged as shown will stop 
the circulation. 



Fig. 39. 



ing apparatus or our pipes which have to convey the 
hot water from the heater to a boiler in which the hot 
water is to be stored in any position other than in a 
vertical position, we are adding friction and retarding 
the flow of hot water just in proportion to the degree of 



126 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

angle in which we place the hot water circulation pipes. 
It should be remembered that there is not much motive 
power to cause circulation under the very best condi- 
tions or arrangement of apparatus. Hence the neces- 
sity of arranging such fixtures in the best and most 
favorable positions. 

In Fig. 39 is shown a boiler connected to a water- 
back ; this is for the purpose of bringing to the notice 
of the plumber a mistake so often made in these 
connections, which is the cause of a great amount of 
trouble and annoyance. I wish in this figure to refer to 
the upper pipe, or hot-water pipe, from the water-back to 
the boiler. As shown at the arrow, part of the pipe is 
sagged down, and is even lower in the sagged part than the 
point where it leaves the water-back. Now, no person 
who knows or understands the principles of hot water 
circulation would ever allow a piece of work done in 
this way. There can be no circulation with such an 
arrangement of pipes, as the hot water would have to 
circulate down hill, and with this arrangement it will 
not do so. Therefore the plumber should use good 
judgment in arranging the upper pipe from the water- 
back to the boiler, and fix it in such a way that it will 
have as much elevation as can be had ; and also to use 
large size elbows, when elbows are used, in order that 
the flow of the water will have the least possible friction 
to contend with. If this hot-water pipe is lead, and 
must be carried some distance to the boiler from the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 127 

water-back, it should be provided with a solid support 
the whole distance, so that a sag would be impossible. 

This improper connection, as shown at the arrow in 
Fig. 39, is not only the cause of preventing the hot water 
from circulating and heating, but it is the cause of a very 
disagreeable noise — a snapping and crackling of the water 
in the pipes and water-back, and also a rumbling noise 
in the boiler, which tells us with a strong sound that 
there is something very much wrong, and which requires 
our immediate attention. These sounds are produced 
by two or three different causes ; sometimes on account 
of the way the upper pipe from the water-back in the 
range is connected to the boiler, and as stated before. 

This pipe should always have some elevation from the 
water-back to where it enters the boiler. The more ele- 
vation we get the better the water will circulate. But 
the slightest rise in this pipe will make a satisfactory job. 
It should be a continuous rise the entire length from the 
water-back to the boiler. 

Another cause of this crackling noise comes from the 
water-back itself being filled, or nearly so, with dirt, 
which partly stops the water from circulating. In fact 
nearly all the troubles of this kind come from a bad cir- 
culation of water between the range and boiler. If the 
trouble is allowed to continue very long without doing 
anything to improve it, it will certainly not improve 
itself, but grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
Now, with these connections between the water-back in 



128 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the range and the boiler stopped up, what are we liable 
to have? With a good fire in the range, under these 
conditions, we will surely have an explosion of the 
water-back, which will blow the range to pieces and, 
perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 

There are about two ways or conditions of things that 
will cause the water-back in a range to explode ; and 
they are, first, to have water in the water-back with its 
outlets or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
started in the range. The fire will generate steam in 
the water-back and, having no outlet through which the 
steam might escape, an explosion must take place. The 
second way through which the water-back could explode 
is to have no water in the kitchen boiler, with a good 
fire in the range and the water-back red-hot, v/hich it 
could easily be, then allow the water to be turned on 
suddenly into the boiler and water-back. Under these 
conditions steam would be generated faster than it could 
escape through the small pipe connections, and would 
naturally result in an explosion. 

One of the greatest dangers of having this trouble 
comes from the freezing of pipe connections between 
boiler and the range. These connections should be 
examined before the fire is allowed to become very hot, 
and although the water may run from both hot and cold 
faucets at the kitchen sink, still the pipe connections 
between the range and boiler may be frozen or 
stopped up solid. Another great trouble comes from 



SANITARY PLUMBING 129 

the sediment or mechanical matter of the water fill- 
ing the pipes and stopping the circulation. As the 
boiler contains several gallons of water, it becomes a 
good place for the dirt to settle in ; and as the specific 
gravity of the sediment is generally greater than that of 
the water, it of course settles to the bottom of the boiler. 
Therefore there is nothing in the ordinary way of doing 
this work to prevent the sediment from going directly 
into the pipe which conveys the water from the boiler to 
the water-back, and often results in closing it up. 

This sediment which is constantly accumulating in 
the boiler should be blown off through the stop-cock 
for this purpose under every boiler, and it should be 
done each day. The best time to do this would be in 
the morning, before any hot water is drawn through any 
faucet in the house. There is a new device lately placed 
on the market which is intended to guard against the 
sediment trouble. It is very good, and should come 
into general use. 

This device for catching the accumulation of sedi- 
ment from kitchen boilers is shown in Fig. 40. It is a 
small cylinder, and connected to the bottom of the 
boiler with the water-back connection above it, so that 
the circulation of water through the pipes will not stir 
up the mud which falls to the bottom of the cylinder 
and remains there until drawn off. This is also a very 
good device to prevent hot water from becoming roily, 
as is often noticed on wash-days. The hot water is 



130 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 



scarcely fit to use, and it is principally on account of the 
improper connecting or setting of the kitchen boiler. 

A very important matter is to know what kind of pipe 
will give the best results for the water connection be- 
tween the range and the boiler. And while on the sub- 
ject of water-back connections, it might not be out of 

THE SEDIMENT POCKET. 




Fig. 40. 



place here. In my experience of many years, I have 
found more trouble and expense on repairs with the 
water-back connections than with any other piece of 
plumbing work in the house, and entirely on account of 
not using the proper material. In the first place, the 
kitchen range and the kitchen boiler are set as closely 



SANITARY PLUMBING 131 

together as they can be, for the purpose of getting the 
best results in regard to the heating of the water; con- 
sequently the distance is very short, perhaps on an aver- 
age three feet, and yet there are hundreds of people 
who will not pay the difference between a cheap piece 
of pipe, that will scarcely stand in this place six months, 
while for two or three dollars more they could have a 
pipe that would last twenty years. This is a good 
example of penny wise and pound foolish. And often 
when recommended by the experienced plumber to use 
the best material, they think he is simply trying to rob 
them. They will not take his advice, but continue to 
use the old and cheap material, so that in a few years 
it will have cost in repairs ten times as much as the 
proper material would have cost in the beginning. 

The best kind of pipe to use for this purpose is either 
copper or brass, with fittings of the same material hav- 
ing thread joints. There should not be a soldered joint 
in these connections, and where unions are to be used 
they should be what are called ground-joint unions ; that 
is, without washers. Lead pipe is too soft for this pur- 
pose, and will not stand the high temperature which the 
water in these connections sometimes attains. And 
wrought-iron pipe will either rust solidly, or be honey- 
combed and cut to pieces by the action of the water in 
a very short time 



132 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



A DOUBLE WATER-BACK CONNECTION. 
It is often necessary to connect two water-backs to 




NNtvTea 






Fig. 41- 

one boiler — one situated in the kitchen and the other 
located in the cellar directly under, with the boiler 



SANITARY PLUMBING 133 

located in the kitchen near the upper water-back, as 
shown in Fig. 41. 

In Fig. 41 is shown a good practical way of making 
a double water-back connection, which if carried out as 
shown will work most satisfactorily. The solid lines 
represent the upper or hot-water connections from the 
water-back, and the dotted lines the lower or cold-water 
pipes from the boiler to the water-backs, with a sediment 
or blow-off cock under the boiler, and also one at the 
lowest point on the lower water-back connection. In 
the arrangement we may use both at the same time, or 
we may use the upper water-back by itself ; or, again, 
we may use the lower water-back, and have no fire in 
the upper water-back. There should not be a stop- 
cock on any of these connections ; and, consequently, 
there will be nothing to turn off or on, and everything 
will work satisfactorily. The sediment-cock at the bot- 
tom of the water back should be opened quite often to 
allow the sediment to pass out of the water-back, as it 
will accumulate much faster at this point than it will at 
the bottom of the boiler. 

DOUBLE BOILER CONNECTIONS. 

It quite frequently happens that the kitchen boiler 
has not a sufficient capacity for the house, and where it 
is not practicable to use a larger boiler on account of the 
room or space in the kitchen. In many such cases 
the second boiler is used connected with the cellar range, 



134 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

and having the hot-water pipes from each boiler con- 
nected together at some point in the house, so that they 
may both deUver their hot water into the same general 
supply throughout the house at the same time, and 
arranged with stop-cocks, so that one or the other may 
stand idle and have no water circulating through it. 
This is a necessary and good arrangement ; but the 
plumber who has not had practical experience with such 
a piece of work, or who has not been taught the neces- 
sary precautions to iiake, will be very apt to have trouble 
in one particular point, and this 1 wish to show in the 
illustration Fig. 42. 

In Fig. 42 is shown two boilers set complete, each 
one to its own water-back, and one supposed to be in 
the kitchen, while the other is located in the cellar 
laundry. And yet these may be set on the same floor 
with each other and still give the same results. It will 
be noticed that each boiler is provided v/ith two stop- 
cocks, one on the cold-water and one on the hot-water 
pipe above the boilers. Now the special point which 
I wish to make known to the plumber in regard to these 
arrangements of boilers is simply that the STOP-COCKS 
must all have wastes ; that is, they must all be stop and 
waste cocks, as marked in the cut. The reason for this 
is that when one boiler is being used the other is of 
course shut off ; and the wastes in the stop-cocks must 
be set so that they will waste when shut off from the 
inside of the boiler ; that is, so the waste will be open 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



135 







Fig. 42. 



136 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

between the inside of the boiler and the outside atmos- 
phere. This precaution must be taken for the reason 
that oftentimes servants and others in starting a new 
fire in a range that has been idle for some time — such 
as might be the case with the laundry range, as it is only- 
used one or two days in the week, as a rule — they forget 
to open the stop-cocks, and never think about it until 
they find out that they are not getting hot water, although 
the fire is good and the boiler hot. Then they remem- 
ber that they did not turn the stop-cocks to allow the 
water from the boiler, just started up, to enter into the 
pipes throughout the house. In such a case, had there 
been no wastes in the stop-cocks, the result would be a 
burst, either in the water-backs, the pipes, or in the 
boiler itself. The author has seen many bursted boilers 
under such circumstances as mentioned above, and con- 
siders this a very good point to be remembered by the 
plumber who may read this, in case he should ever have 
such a piece of work to do. 

THE LAWLER SYSTEM OF HOT-WATER CIRCULATION 
FOR KITCHEN BOILERS. 

In Fig. 43 is shown a new system of arranging the 
hot-water boiler connected with the water-back in the 
kitchen range, and the boiler located on the floor below 
or in the cellar. Patents are now pending on this ar- 
rangement, and the author has had the system in practical 
operation for some time, giving the very best results, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



137 



Some of the advantages claimed for this system are that 
the boiler may be located in a more out-of-the-way 
place ; that is, it can be placed in the cellar, where 
the effects of its heat will not be felt in the 




already too hot kitchen, and also leave more room in 
the small kitchen. With this system it will not be 
necessary to have polished metal boilers, and conse- 
quently in this respect much labor will be saved. The 



138 LAWLER S AMERICAN 

old arrangement of having the boiler in the kitchen is 
also a great eye-sore in place of an ornament. Another 
great advantage with this improved arrangement of 
boiler is, that as the water does not circulate from the 
extreme bottom of the boiler, the bottom acts as a good 
sediment pocket, and therefore the hot water will be 
clean, and never stir up the mud at the bottom. The 
sediment can be drawn off in the usual way through the 
sediment cock, as shown in the cut. There will be less 
chance with this new arrangement to choke up the 
water-back, and therefore prevent damage, and also heat 
more water with less fuel. The new system, as shown 
in Fig. 43, has also the advantage of storing the hot 
water, as it is heated at the very top of the boiler, so 
that it is not necessary to have to wait until all the 
water in the boiler is heated before hot water can be 
drawn. In this arrangement the water drawn can be 
had at a very much higher temperature, which is often 
desirable. The ordinary wrought or galvanized iron 
boiler will stand the cutting action of the hot water 
much better and wear much longer by this new system 
than in the old way, for the reason that the hot water 
does not come direct from the water-back to the top of 
the boiler. There are many other good points in favor 
of this new system which should recommend it to the 
favor of the progressive plumber. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 139 



EXPLANATION OF THE LAWLER SYSTEM. 

Referring again to Fig. 43, A represents the water- 
back, located in the kitchen ; B represents the boiler, 
located in the cellar ; C is the receiving chamber, or 
enlargement of the hot-water pipe. This chamber C is 
only two inches in diameter by twelve inches long, and 
may be less, while the pipe connections are the regular 
size, three-quarter or one-inch pipe. The boiler is the 
regular standard make without a change, having the 
same tube in it as shown at T in Fig. 43. The opera- 
tion is as follows : The water being turned on and the 
system filled, the fire is then started in the range, which 
heats the water-back, A ; the v/ater, receiving the heat, 
ascends (as explained in another part of this book), pass- 
ing up to the highest point, as shown, which may be 
from five to eight feet above the water-back, and enter- 
ing receiving chamber C on the side an inch or two 
below the top, while the extreme top of chamber C is 
the outlet for the hot water, which may be carried to all 
parts of the house. The hot water when not drawn 
through the house passes down from chamber C through 
the hot-water pipe, and stores itself at the top of the 
boiler. The water-back brings up its supply through 
tube T from a point near the bottom of the boiler, as 
shown. In this way the circulation is kept up, heating 
all the water in the boiler to a point a little below the 
bottom of tube T. The water, when drawn hot from 



140 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



the boiler, may come directly from the boiler, or it may 
come directly through the water-back, whichever hap- 



%if 




CoU)^^l^Tc^^ 



Fig. 44- 



pens to be the hottest. Another arrangement of this 
new system is shown in Fig. 44. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 141 

If it should be desirable, for any reason, to locate the 
boiler in a horizontal position, strapped up to the cel- 
lar ceiling, as shown, it can be done and give the best 
results. But in this case I would not use the end con- 
nections of the boiler, but instead place the outlets of 
the boiler as shown in Fig. 44. 

TO CIRCULATE HOT WATER THROUGH THE HOUSE 
PIPES CONNECTED WITH THE DIFFERENT FIXTURES. 

Referring to Fig. 45, it will give us an idea of the 
general principles of what is known as the '* hot water 
circulating system." The object of such a system of 
hot-water pipes in a house is to make it possible to 
draw hot water from the hot-water faucets at the differ- 
ent fixtures throughout the house at the moment the 
faucets are opened, instead of having to wait some 
time until all the water in the pipe has been drawn 
out, and also the pipe heated sufficiently to convey the 
water (hot) to the faucet from which it is drawn. This 
object is accomplished by keeping up a circulation of 
the hot water at all times from the boiler to the differ- 
ent fixtures and return. To make this explanation as 
simple as possible, I have arranged a very simple sketch. 
Fig. 45, showing the kitchen boiler, set in the usual 
way, and connected to the water-back, also two floors 
above the boiler, arranged with bathtub and washbasin 
in each. In the sketch, Fig. 45, the dark lines represent 



142 



LAWLER's AMERICAN 





I 



M M II 



^ ■ i 



sw 



>s 




J^a 



CoU VVkTek 

Fig. 45- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 143 

the cold-water supply pipe, while the dotted lines are 
intended to show the position of the hot-water pipes. 
The cold-water pipe is placed and connected in the 
usual way — that is, there is no change in it for this cir- 
culation system ; the only change made is in the arrange- 
ment of the hot-water pipe. The hot-water pipe is then 
started from the top of the boiler and carried up as 
shown to the highest fixture, and there connected. A 
branch pipe is connected, forming a loop, and carried 
down again, as shown by the direction of the arrows ; 
and as this pipe returns down it takes in the lower fix- 
tures, finally ending at the bottom connection of the 
boiler. 

AVOID SAGS IN THE UPRIGHT PIPE. 
The one thing necessary to be especially careful of in 
arranging the pipes for a circulating system of this kind 
is to be sure and have some elevation to the pipe at all 
points which leads from the boiler to the highest fix- 
ture. If we have some places on such a job where it is 
necessary to have part of this pipe in a horizontal posi- 
tion, that part of the pipe should be laid on a shelf if 
lead, and with as much elevation from the boiler as can 
be had, and protected in such a way so that it could not 
sag at any point. It makes no special difference, in re- 
gard to the return pipe of this circuit, whether it has a 
fall at all points toward the bottom of the boiler or 
not. With the advantages to this circulating system 
there are also some disadvantages. 



144 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



The pipes are hot throughout the house at all timeSj 
which is not desirable. The constant circulation of the 
hot water through the pipes adds greatly to the wear 
and tear of them, also the loss of heat which is going 
on through the hot-water pipes at all times means 




Fig. 46, — Sectional view of the Compression Cock. 



quite a loss of fuel, and on large jobs amounts to quite 
a large sum. 

Referring again to Fig. 45, I wish to call attention to 
the matter of carrying the return pipe from the last or 
lower fixture. This part of the pipe may be reduced to 
a small size, say half an inch, all that is necessary. After 



SANITARY PLUMBING 145 

leaving the last fixture there is a small connection to keep 
up the circulation. This arrangment may be carried out 
on any size job by simply following the general princi- 
ples, as shown in Fig. 45. 

MUSIC IN WATER PIPES — CAUSE OF THE DIFFERENT 
SOUNDS AND VIBRATIONS THAT TAKE PLACE IN 
THE WATER PIPES OF A HOUSE. 

One of the most annoying things connected with the 
water appliances of our homes is that peculiar sound 
and vibration that takes place in them at any hour of 
the day or night ; and knowing that none of the fixtures 
are intended to act in this manner, and that such music 
is not appreciated or wanted, we conclude at once that 
there must be something wrong. And of course there 
is something wrong. It often happens that when 
such things are let run too long without a remedy 
there are sure to be some serious results. Such sounds 
often frighten the people in the house, because they do 
not know the cause or what the results from them might 
be. But if they knew the cause, they would not have 
occasion to feel so nervous about them. 

Such sounds as we hear in the hydraulic or sanitary 
arrangements of a house are, to the experienced me- 
chanic, symptoms of how such fixtures are doing their 
work, and by these sounds he can tell at once without 
seeing anything both where and what the trouble is ; like 



146 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the experienced physician, who can tell by the sound how 
the valves of the heart are doing their work and the 
action of many other things in the human body without 
seeing any of them. 

SINGING AND WHISTLING OF WATER FAUCETS. 

The make of faucets known as and called compression 
work are the kind that make the most singing and 
whistling noise. And yet they are much better, taking 
everything into consideration, for domestic purposes 
than the old make or style called ground work. Most 
people think when they hear such sounds from the pipes 
or faucets that there is air in the pipes. But this is 
not the case. Air is blamed for all the trouble, and is 
scarcely ever the cause of any of it. 

In the first place, sounds always come from vibrations. 
And anything that produces sound must vibrate. 
Again, no one thing or material can produce sound in 
itself. Therefore, water in itself will not make noise, 
but w^hen running water comes in contact with some 
other material or mechanism that is not fastened solid, 
and has some room to move, it is only a matter of ad- 
justment in the flow of water to set up a vibration in 
this loose mechanical arrangement. This is the cause 
of the whistling and singing of the water faucet. It is 
lost motion in the interior moving parts or valve of 
such faucet. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



147 




Plain Bibl?,_to Solder, 



Plain Bibb, 
Screwed for Iron Pipe. 




Hose Bibb. 



Hose Bibb, 
Screwed for Iron Pipe. 





Plain Bibb, Hose Bibb, 

Flange and Thimble. Flange and Thimble. 

Fig. 47. 



148 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 




Wash Tray Bibb^ 
To Solder.. 



Wash Tray Bibb, 
Screwed for Iron Pipe. 




Straight Wash Tray Ipibb., 
jTo Solder.J 




Straight Wash Tray Bibb,' 
Flange and Thimble. 




Wash Tray Bibb, 
Flange and Thimble. 




Hopper Cocks. 



Fig. 48. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 149 

When the faucets are new we scarcely ever hear these 
sounds, and if we do it is good indication of a bad piece 
of new work. The stem and the sHding disc of the fau- 
cet which carries the washer down to its seat are the 
moving parts, and by friction soon wear and become 
loose. Therefore we have a very good chance in the 
warm-water faucet to get vibrations at most any time 
when in operation. To remedy them we must have the 
work fitted tighter, so that there can be no vibrations of 
the moving parts in the faucets. Now, from these sing- 
ing and whistling sounds there need be no fear of any- 
thing going wrong. There is no danger in any such 
sounds. The pipe will not burst or the boiler blow 
up. It simply lets you know that some one or more 
of the faucets have worn loose enough to require a 
little repairing. 

THE SELF-CLOSING FAUCET. 

This is another style or make, and is used a great deal 
in dwelling-houses and hotels, and from it we get what 
might be called shocks and very heavy vibrations. This 
style faucet scarcely ever produces the singing noise ; 
but the kind of noise it does make is a great deal worse, 
and does much more injury to itself and also to the 
pipes and other fixtures in the house. Self-closing fau- 
cets are fitted with a spring, which always holds down 
the valve on its seat, except when used, and then it 



150 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

must be held up with the hand as long as we wish the 
water to flow, and when relieved the spring by its own 




Fig. 49. — Sectional view of a Se!f-closi?tg Bibb. 

pressure closes down the valves against the pressure of 
the water. 

This style of valve or faucet has some advantages as 
well as its disagreeable objections. 



SANIT.\RY PLUMBING 151 

Its advantages are to guard against the overflowing of 
washbasins, sinks, bathtubs, and other fixtures that may 
be located on the upper floors of a house, and perhaps 




Fig. 50. — Self-closing Basin Cock. 

over some very fine ceihngs. The water cannot be 
left running where the self-closing faucets are used ; "be- 
cause when they are relieved of the pressure of the hand, 
which held them open, the spring by its power closes 



152 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

down the valve and shuts off the water. Therefore 
there can be no overflowing of water from the supply- 
pipes with fixtures having self-closing faucets. 

Sometimes children open faucets in washbasins or 
bathtubs and forget to close them, and often with the 
stopper in, leaving no chance for the water to find its 
way into the waste pipe. In many washbasins and 
bathtubs there is an overflow pipe to guard against such 
overflowing of the water; but these places are generally 
choked up by some foul matter when the time comes for 
them to work. 

The self-closing faucet is also good to prevent the 
waste of water. We know that there is about as much 
water wasted through carelessness, in places where there 
are no water meters, as the amount required for actual 
necessity. There are a great many people who think 
there is no harm in wasting water or letting it run 
continually, because they pay some certain amount of 
money per annum for its use. And some think 
they have a right to do just what they please with 
it. To such people, I would say they are very much 
mistaken. We have no right to waste one drop of water 
when we pay for it by the year. But if we pay for the 
water by measure, we can use it as we like. And in 
this case we will be found to be very careful about wast- 
ing it. 

The objectionable noise from the self-closing faucet 
comes from a different cause to that described in the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 153 

compression faucet, and it is on account of the sudden 
changes in the pressure of water. This change of 
pressure seldom comes from the variations in the 
street mains, but is caused by. the action in some 
other faucet or valve in the house. In suddenly clos- 
ing them we get what is called a back action, or a back 
pressure, and this finds relief in lifting the spring of the 
self-closing faucet from its seat, and for a second we get 
a very heavy sound or vibration ; because the spring is 
strong, and when it comes down on its seat it strikes 
like a hammer, causing several more back actions, which 
extend through the entire system of water pipes in the 
house. 

This kind of vibration in the faucet shakes almost 
everything connected with it, and often loosens the joints 
of the pipes and causes them to leak. Very often the 
spring in the faucet becomes weak from usage, so that it 
has not the power to resist the regular pressure of the 
water ; and at times their pressure becomes equal and a 
vibration takes place. To stop the noise or vibration 
from this cause, we have only to open some other faucet, 
which will lessen the pressure of the water and allow the 
spring to close. 

NOISE AND VIBRATIONS FROM TANK AND CLOSET 
VALVES. 

From the uncertain action of this style valve we get 
another kind of unpleasant sound. It is much slower 



154: LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

in action than that from the self-closing faucet, but from 
very much the same cause. This is an automatic or 
self-action valve, and is worked by the buoyancy power 
and weight of a copp.er ball in water pivoted to a lever. 
Sometimes there is a balance of pressure between this 
valve and the pressure of the water, and consequently 




Fig. 51. — Tank Valve. 

we get another vibration. But on account of the valve 
seat being connected with a long lever having a ball on 
the end of it, its motion is slow. To remedy this trouble 
we must give more power to the valve, so that it will 
resist the pressure of the water. And this can be done 
by either making the lever longer or enlarging the size 
of the ball. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 155 

THE ROARING SOUND OR NOISE FROM THE RUNNING 
OF WATER IN SUPPLY PIPES. 

This is a most unpleasant sound, and it can be no- 
ticed in a great many houses. No matter what part 
of the house we may be in at the time water is run- 
ning from some faucet in the house, we can hear it 
distinctly. This is a sound that has nothing to do with 
the workings of the pipes or fixtures, therefore it is no 
injury to them ; but I think it the least excusable of all 
sounds. It comes from the location of the pipes. And 
in such cases they are generally found to be fastened to 
the cellar ceiling. Where water-supply pipes are fastened 
directly to the joists of a ceiling is when we get this 
roaring sound the most ; because the wooden floors 
which extend over the entire area of a house, being 
quite thin and nailed solidly to the joists, make the best 
kind of sounding board. This sound is never noticed 
where the supply pipes are located in the earth under 
the cellar floor. And when it is necessary to locate them 
on the ceiling, we can prevent the sound by placing 
some non-conducting material between the pipes and the 
wood. 

In Figs. 52 and 53 are shown some of the standard 
makes of the ground or plug faucet or bibb and stop 
cocks, with the proper names under each, by which each 
one is known to the plumber and also to the manufac- 
turer of plumber's brass goods. 



156 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 




Plain Bibb, to Solder.; 



riain Bibb, Screwed, for^ 
Iron Pipe.^ 




Hose Bibb, to Solder. 



Hose Bibb, Screwed, for 
Iron Pipe.; 




Wash Tray Bibb, to 
Solder. '" ' 



Wash Tray Bibb, Screwed, 
for Iron Pipe. 



Fig. 52. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



157 




Rough Stop, to Solder. 




Rough Stop, for Iron and 
^ Lead Pipe. 





Stop and Waste, to Solder. Stop' and Waste, Screwed, for 

Iron Pipe. ' 




Round-way Stop and Waste, Rp^g^ Stop, Screwed, (or^ 

to Solder.. ' "^ Iron Pipe. '" 



Fig. 53. 



158 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



SOLDER JOINTS AND JOINT WIPING. 

When we speak of solder joints and wipe joints it is 
understood by the pkimber that we refer to connecting 
separate pieces of lead pipe together, or lead and some 
other kind of material. As lead is quite a soft material, 
it would not be practicable to use the thread joints on it. 
From time to time we have noticed several attempts 
by different persons to produce some system or arrange- 
ment by which lead pipe connections could be made 
without the use of solder; but personally I have never 
yet seen anything that I would consider practicable 
for the purpose. I might state here that no practical 
plumber would ever think of trying to devise a means 
of connecting lead together without the use of solder ; 
for he knows the nature of the metal too well under 
different conditions, and therefore I am satisfied the 
person who devises a system of making lead pipe con- 
nections without solder is not a practical plumber, and 
the result will be that no practical plumber will use any 
such device. 

When we speak of it not being practicable to connect 
two pieces of lead together without the use of solder, 
we do not refer to the system known as lead burning. 
We especially refer to the connecting of pipes and fit- 
tings as practiced in general. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 159 

HOW TO PROPERLY PREPARE THE ENDS OF LEAD 
PIPE TO BE SOLDERED. 

If two pieces of lead pipe are to be connected with 
each other, they must first be prepared for the solder. 
The meaning of this is, that the lead must be cleaned, 
and show a perfectly bright surface at the parts which 
are expected to hold the solder. This is done usually 
with the shave-hook, which is quite sharp. It is proper 
to shave off the surface of new lead pipe an amount 
equal to about twice the thickness of the paper upon 
which this is printed. And for old lead pipe, or pipe 
that has been somewhat corroded, sometimes deeper ; in 
all cases the shave-hook must take off enough, no mat- 
ter how deep it must go into the pipe, to leave a per- 
fectly clean surface for the solder. This same principle 
holds good for anything, else that must be soldered. 

Just as soon as the ends of the lead pipe have been 
properly shaved, as the plumber calls it, the clean surface 
must be protected from the action of the atmosphere, 
and for this protection a little grease or tallow is rubbed 
over the clean surface. The effect of the grease on the 
cleaned part of the pipe is, that it will give the plumber 
time to prepare the other end of his pipe, and also set the 
joint in position for either soldering or wiping (which- 
ever the case may be) without becoming tarnished. 
The action of the air is very great on any clean surface 
of lead ; that is, the air, or the part of the atmosphere 



160 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

called oxygen, immediately begins to corrode the surface, 
when it can get directly at it. And while the clean sur- 
face is covered with grease, the air of course cannot act 
directly upon it. If we clean the end of a piece of lead 
pipe, and let it stand a few minutes without applying 
grease of some kind, we cannot make a proper joint 
with it in that state, and will have to clean it all over 
again. So that just as soon as one end of a joint or 
piece of pipe is cleaned, the very next thing to do is to 
apply the grease over the cleaned surface. The plumber 
always carries with him, among his kit of tools, a little 
box with two covers and a partition in the centre, mak- 
ing two compartments. One side is intended to hold the 
grease which is used on the joints, and the other end or 
compartment of the box is to hold the resin, which is 
also used in soldering cup joints or tinning brass to 
be soldered. 

THE CUP JOINT. 

What is a cup joint ? A cup joint is the kind of con- 
nection between two pieces of lead pipe, or one piece of 
lead pipe and some other kind of metal, such as a brass 
coupling, by the use of fine solder and the soldering- 
iron. This kind of joint is only suitable for very light 
pressure or on very small connections. The cup joint is 
allowed on small connections, such as the couplings of 
basin cocks and in small lead waste-pipe connections. 
Where this style joint is used the plumber must use 



SANITARY PLUMBING 161 

great care in making them, in order to have them as 
perfect as possible, otherwise there will surely be trouble 
from them. I find in my practical experience that it is 
not safe to use the cup joint on hot-water connections 
for supply pipes. The expansion and contraction of 
the lead is so great, and constantly going on, that they 
soon leak. And I would recommend to the enterpris- 
ing manufacturer of basin cocks to make the couplings 
large enough, so that it would be practicable to make a 
properly wiped joint on the pipe. 

One good place where the cup joint can be used to 
advantage is shown in Fig. 54 on sink waste pipes and 
basin waste pipes where they pass through the floor ; 
it makes an easy way of connecting, as well as giving a 
support to the pipe by having the flange (as shown) 
resting on the floor. In making cup joints of any kind 
there is one special thing that the plumber must be 
very careful about, and that is in properly fitting the 
upper piece of pipe into the flange, so that there will be 
no chance for the melted solder to run through into the 
pipe, and hang there in perfect hooks to catch every 
piece of thread and hair that finds its way as far as that 
through the waste pipe. I have seen more trouble 
arising from carelessly made cup joints in waste pipes 
than perhaps from any other style or make of joint in 
the construction of plumbing fixtures. There are two 
general reasons for this trouble happening in the mak- 
ing of the cup joint, and if the plumber will remember 



162 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 



these things, he will be more apt to use greater care in 
making them. First, he must remember that he cannot 




have a perfect fit of the two ends of the pipes unless 
they are perfectly round. And if he uses his bending- 
pin to turn over part of the flange (which he is apt to 



SANITARY PLUMBING 163 

do), he should not forget to use also the turn-pin to 
make the opening in the bottom or flange end perfectly 
round ; then carefully rasping off the male end so 
that it will also be perfectly round ; here is where the 
care must be taken. Then again, the plumber must 
remember that there is no chance in this kind of joint 
(as there is in the running or straight wipe joint) to 
close up by the hammer any unevenness between the 
two ends. And again, he should remember that in this 
joint it is necessary to make the joint very hot, melting 
and sweating the solder well down into the joint. If 
the ends are not perfectly fitted some of the solder will 
surely go through. 

THE FLANGE JOINT MADE WITH SOLDER. 

A similar joint to the one just described, and one 
used for the same purpose, but one that is not only 
much better, but makes a much more finished job, is 
described and shown in Fig. 55. This style joint is 
wiped in place of being soldered with the soldering-iron. 
This wiped flange joint is prepared in the usual way, 
the ends being cleaned and prepared as described, but 
it takes up more room and is larger than the soldered 
joint in order to make it stronger, and at the same time 
to put a finish to it. Therefore the male end must be 
cleaned to a longer distance ; and in order to make the 
flange on the floor in a proper proportion, a piece of 
sheet lead is used, as shown in the cut, to save time, in 



164 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

place of turning such a large flange on the waste pipe. 
In making this joint, the lower part of the pipe is 
brought through the floor and extended above about 
one inch. Then the sheet-lead flange is placed over 
the extended end, fitting closely. The extended part 
of the waste pipe is then flanged over, covering part of 
the sheet-lead flange, as shown. The same care must be 
exercised here in making the opening perfectly round, 
and then cleaning the top of the flange as well as the 
female part of the pipe to be connected. The plumb- 
er's metal is then applied, and the finished joint is indi- 
cated by the dotted lines. 

SOIL AND ITS USE. 

In the making of wiped joints of every kind, and also 
many joints made by the soldering-iron, is used a mix- 
ture of lampblack and glue, called by the plumbers soil. 
This is used on the pipes to prevent solder from stick- 
ing in places where it is not wanted. But the plumber 
of taste takes advantage of it, and uses the soil in many 
cases to ornament his work. The soil is applied to the 
ends of the pipe to be connected hot, and after it is per- 
fectly dry the joint may be cleaned. The distance of the 
pipe covered with the soil is only a few inches, accord- 
ing to the size of the joint to be made, and is only 
applied to such parts as might be touched by the 
melted solder. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 165 

HOW TO MAKE SOIL. 

It is quite a nice thing to know how to make good 
soil. The qualities of good soil are : that it will look 
black, that it will adhere to the pipe when applied with 
a small brush, and that it will dry quickly on the pipe 
and not rub off by being handled. My way of making 
soil is (to make a small quantity at a time), to take one 
package of lampblack and boil it in water until it dis- 
solves with the water. For this amount of lampblack 
I would put in two tablespoonfuls of melted glue. 
After this has been all thoroughly dissolved and mixed 
to a consistency just about thin enough to move, then 
put into the mixture about a teaspoonful of powdered 
chalk, and mix thoroughly again. For this purpose 
the plumber has a little can called the soil-cup. It is 
generally made of copper, and must be heated every 
time the soil is to be used ; otherwise the soil would 
not stick to the pipe, and make a dirty-looking job. 

THE STRAIGHT WIPED JOINT. 

In Figs. 56, 57, and 58 are shown the straight wiped 
joint in three stages ; first, the ends properly soiled, 
greased, and cleaned, and ready to be fitted. Then in 
Fig. 57 the same ends are shown placed together, ready 
to be wiped. And again, in Fig. 58, is shown the fin- 
ished joint after being wiped. In preparing these joints 
the plumber should use good judgment in regard to 



lee 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 



proportions, so that his joint when finished would look 
in the proper proportion to the size of the pipe on 






be 



biO 



which it is made, and also look pleasant to the eye. 
To properly carry out this point it is, of course, neces- 
sary to start properly ; that is, to get the right length, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 167 

and not clean too much of the pipe, nor make it too 
short. Then make the joint as round as possible, nicely 
sloping in graceful curves, from the thinest possible 
amount of solder on the ends to the desired thickness 
of the joint at its centre. Tastes differ a little in regard 
to a nicely proportioned joint, but not much. The great 
aim must be to get an even amount of solder all the 
way round the joint, and not more on the top than on 
the bottom. At this point I wish to state that no per- 
son can learn how to wipe a joint by simply reading a 
book. All we can get on this point in books is simply 
a description of preparing the joints ; and as the saying 
goes, '* Anything properly started is already half fin- 
ished." But I hardly think this saying holds good in 
joint wiping. There is no way to be able to properly 
wipe joints with plumber's metal but by actual prac- 
tice. First of all, the apprentice should watch carefully 
all the actions of the plumber he helps when joints are be- 
ing wiped. The apprentice must also take every oppor- 
tunity he can get to practice on any old piece of pipe or 
faucet. Keep on wiping, and at the same time keep 
on watching the plumber when he is wiping. And the 
apprentice should not be afraid to ask questions on any 
point he does not understand. After a little while, if 
the boy has a taste for the trade, if he cannot make a 
good-looking joint, he will discover some of the reasons 
gradually ; he will begin to understand that he had bad 
metal. Then he will discover that his metal was too fine. 



168 LAWI^ER'S AMERICAN 

He will then begin to make good metal. He will very 
likely get it too coarse, and not know this k)r a while, and 
wonder why he is not yet making a good joint. But 
soon he finds out that his metal was too coarse, and then 
acts with more care. And by that time his hand will be 
trained to some extent to know by the touch the nec- 
essary temperature of the metal, and also the pipe, in 
order to be able to properly make a good wipe joint. 
After properly understanding how to make good metal, 
so that it can be easily worked, and at the same time 
not sweat, it will then only be a matter of training the 
hands and fingers to manipulate the metal into the 
desired shape at the proper time ; knowing the temper- 
ature through the sensitive feelings developed in the 
hands and fingers by practice. 

WIPING IN A BIBB. 

One of the most important joints to be wiped, but 
one that is not the easiest, is to properly and neatly 
wipe in a bibb. 

In the above cuts, Figs. 59 and 60, is shown a bibb 
prepared to be wiped in, and also shows it completed 
after the joint has been wiped. 

In this case we have two different kinds of metal to 
contend with, and hence we will find that it is not quite 
as easy as having to wipe on lead only. In Fig. 59 is 
shown a piece of pipe such as might be used for one of 
the supply pipes to a sink ; and as the top end of such 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



169 



a piece of pipe is generally of lead, cut in a slanting 
shape, as shown, and the end wiped over with plumber's 




Fig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 



metal to give a little more of a finish, the end is cut in 
the desired shape and properly cleaned and prepared for 



170 LA\VLER S AMERICAN 

the solder, and then a wad of soft paper is placed in the 
end to stop the solder from going down into the pipe, as 
indicated by the arrow in the cut. Referring to the 
faucet in Fig. 59, a proper length of its shank is filed 
clean, and then tinned with resin and solder, using a 
soldering-iron for the purpose. As the balance of 
the faucet is not intended to hold any solder, it will be 
necessary to prevent the melted solder from sticking to 
the faucet in places where it is not wanted. For this 
purpose the soil used on the lead pipe does not answer 
very well, and consequently I would recommend for all 
brass connections a strip of common newspaper pasted 
on with flour and water. Before putting on the paper 
apply just a little grease or oil on the brass to be 
covered, and in this way, after the joint is wiped, the 
paper will peal off with ease, leaving the bright surface 
of brass. If the paper is pasted on without first apply- 
ing grease, it will be hard to scrape off the paper, besides 
marking up the work. In the cut Fig. 59 the arrow 
points to the shank of the faucet as it is covered with 
paper. Another point in making this kind of joint : it is 
better to take out the disc of the faucet in order to have 
as little obstruction in the way of getting the hand be- 
tween the faucet and the pipe, as the room is quite 
small in any shape. After properly cleaning and pre- 
paring the joint as shown, it is then set together and 
made solid. As a rule, for such a job three bricks are 
used, one under the pipe on each side of the faucet, and 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



171 



one under the nozzle of the faucet. The pipe is held 
solid by weights of any kind placed a short distance 
from the joint, and a little melted solder poured on the 
nozzle of the faucet, which in a way clamps it to the 
brick which the faucet rests on, and answers very well 
to hold it. 



Fig. 6i. 

Fig. 60 shows the faucet as it looks after the joint has 
been wiped. This will now be ready to have a pair of 
lead tacks soldered on to the back of the joint for the 
purpose of screwing it fast to the wall, or wherever it is 
to be placed. 

THE LEAD BRANCH JOINT. 

Referring to Figs. 61 , 62, and 6^, above is shown the lead- 
pipe branch joint in the different stages. The branch part 



172 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



with the opening must be carefully opened, so that the 
pipe will not be weakened in any respect, and the lead 
drawn out by the use of the bending iron, so that it 




Fig. 62. 




Fig. 63. 

will extend enough from its level line to admit the 
branch part, or male connection, to enter at least a 
quarter of an inch (and a half inch would be better) 
without the end extending beyond the inside line of the 
main part of the branch, so that there will be no obstruc- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 1Y3 

tion to the flow of the water in any direction. Fig. 62 
shows this same arrangement of joint connected and 
ready for the solder, and Fig. 63 shows it finished. 

WIPING IN STOP-COCKS. 

In Figs. 64 and 65 we show a stop-cock as it is pre- 
pared to be wiped in, and also show it after it has been 
wiped. The general arrangement and preparation for 
this kind of joint in regard to tinning it, cleaning the 
lead, its length for the size of joint, and so on, are as 
described. Also care must be taken to get both joints the 
same length. And in this case, after the ends have been 
cleaned and set together, use the compass to find out if 
the length cleaned for each joint is the same, and if not, 
make them so. In this case we also take out the plug 
of the stop-cock; and in doing so there must be great 
care taken in handling the body of the cock without 
the plug, and also care taken with the plug, so that 
neither of them will be scratched or dirtied in any way. 
The plug should be laid down on a clean piece of paper, 
and carefully cleaned before setting it back again into 
the cock ; also carefully wipe out the cock with a soft 
clean rag. The arrows, also shown in Fig. 64, show the 
parts to be covered with pasted paper, and Fig. 65 
shows how the joints should look after they are wiped. 



174: 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 





Fig. 64. 



Fig. 65. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



175 





Fig. 66. 



Fig. ^T, 



176 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

THE STRAIGHT UPRIGHT WIPE-JOINT. 

In Fig. 66 is shown a joint prepared to be wiped in 
an upward position. The preparing of all such joints 
are the same. The way of holding the pipes solid may- 
differ, and any good plan will answer ; usually the 
plumber desires it to be a piece of wood as shown, 
two compasses straddling the pipe, which hold it fast. 
In this kind of wipe-joint it makes the best job to have 
the male end of the pipe the upper one, for the reason 
that the metal soaks into the centre of the connection 
better, and there will be less danger of a leak after the 
joint has been wiped. In wiping this upright joint, or 
any upright joint, it is a good plan to carefully tie 
around the pipe a few inches below the joint a bed of 
paper, to not only catch the solder and prevent it from 
spattering all over the floor, but to help in keeping the 
pipe warm while the joint is being made. 

In making upright joints sometimes a small stick 
(shown in Fig. 67) is used to throw on the metal. This 
is called a spatting-stick, and answers to begin with 
better than the cloth, as it can be thrown all around 
until the pipe is heated hot enough to hold the solder. 
The metal is worked up as much as possible, keeping 
high up on the joint in order to keep the upper part 
of the pipe hot. There is no trouble to keep the bottom 
hot in the upright joint. And when it is ready to give 
the finishing touch, first wipe off the upper half, finish- 
ing it complete, and then take off the solder on the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



m 



lower part. This is not a hard joint to make, and as a 
rule the upright joint never leaks. 




Fig. 68. 

In Fig. 68 is shown the upright branch joint ready in 
position to be wiped. In places where there is plenty 



178 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

of room to get at it this joint is also quite easy to make, 
and the same general rules as stated for the straight 
upright must be carried out. In applying the metal, be 
careful not to burn through the lead. And in upright 
joints it is well to use paper and paste on the pipe in 
place of soil, as there will be more friction from the 
solder, which would rub off the soil and cause the solder 
to adhere to the pipe in places where it was not wanted. 

SEWER GAS AND OTHER FOUL ODORS WITH WHICH 
THE SANITARY PLUMBER MUST COME IN CON- 
TACT AND SHOULD BE ABLE TO DETECT. 

As stated in the Introduction of this book, the plumber 
must be a sanitarian, and he must develop his sense of 
sm.ell to quite a high degree in order to be able to tell 
or distinguish the many different foul odors noticed 
from time to time in the different buildings where he 
may be employed to do some work. This is a very im- 
portant matter that should also be considered by any 
person who lives in a house having plumbing fixtures. 
I might ask how you know that you have not sewer 
gas escaping from the sewer into the living rooms of 
your house. You do not know. You may say you 
cannot notice it through your sense of smell ; and, of 
course, you are right, because you do not know how to 
detect it. But you could know if you gave a little 
attention to it, and you should know. It requires an 



SANITARY PLUMBING 179 

expert to distinguish the pecuHar odor of sewer gas 
from the many other obnoxious gases which are often 
noticeable. 

But by having some knowledge of the mechanical 
arrangements and the philosophy upon which they 
work, you will know when it is impossible for sewer gas 
to be present, and also when it would be possible for it 
to enter the house. Among the many obnoxious odors 
that are sometimes taken for sewer gas might be men- 
tioned the decomposition of vermin under some floor or 
in partitions. Sometimes we get sulphur from a defect- 
ive or partly choked chimney flues and sometimes we 
get illuminating gas escaping from some very small leak 
in the gas pipes or fixtures, and the air becomes very 
foul. At times we get an offensive odor from the un- 
clean and poorly ventilated bathroom, which is only 
the local atmosphere of it and not sewer gas. We get 
an odor that comes from the decomposition of old wood 
and also from unclean carpets, and stagnant air from 
clothes closets that are never properly ventilated, any of 
which is very injurious to health ; and very often we get 
a combination of the various gases mentioned. There- 
fore it will be seen that it is not easy to tell whether 
you have sewer gas in your house or not. By the mere 
sense of smell it is only the expert sanitarian who 
can tell, and he acquires that knowledge by long training 
and experience. We can hardly be blamed for living 
in danger when we do not know it; but when we know 



180 LAWLERS AMERICAN 

the danger of things we are more careful in our actions 
with them. Nearly every one knows that sewxr gas is a 
dangerous thing, but they do not know how bad it is. 
The best authorities have found by actual experiment 
that one part of sewer gas in two hundred and forty 
parts of pure air will kill a horse. It is composed chiefly 
of carbonic acid, nitrogen, sulphureted hydrogen, am- 
moniacal compounds, and fetid organic vapor. 

In other words, sewer gas is decomposed animal and 
vegetable matter, or that which has become dead and 
rotten ; therefore it is the most filthy and the most 
dangerous of all poisonous gases. Sewer gas is a most 
dangerous thing, for the reason that it is possible for it 
to carr\^ with it into any house where it may have access, 
through defecti\'e plumbing, almost any known disease. 
It will therefore be seen that sewer gas is no thing to 
play with. It is not the proper thing to allow the 
apprentice boy or the inexperienced man to meddle 
with. No person should be allowed to, in the least way, 
interfere with the waste or sewer pipes of a house who 
has not a thorough knowledge of the science of sanitary 
plumbing. There should be a law to imprison with 
severe punishment both the owners of houses who allow 
defective plumbing to be put up in them and also the 
plumbers who throw such work together. I often think 
of the thousands of poor — yes, even rich — children who 
are more dead than alive, merely existing in houses that 
are saturated with the filthy sewer gas and every im- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 181 

aginable kinds of foul odors, which can be traced to 
unsanitary plumbing fixtures and botched work done 
through ignorance. 

A TRIP WITH THE PLUMBER THROUGH THE HOUSE 
DRAIN OR WASTE PIPE — STARTING AT THE MAIN 
SEWER IN THE STREET, AND ENDING AT THE 
VENTILATING PIPE ABOVE THE HOUSE ROOF. 

The sewer or house drain is one of the most particular 
pieces of work in connection with the sanitary arrange- 
ments of a house. After an experience of twenty-five 
years, I find there is more carelessness and disregard for 
what is right in constructing this very important part of 
the work than anything else connected with the house. 
It seems strange that such is the case, because the sewer 
has a great amount of labor to perform, and also because 
it is generally located deep down in the ground, and 
covered over with things that are not always easy to re- 
move. The very fact of its being located in a bad place 
to get at is reason enough for its being well done. A 
boy or laboring man who is employed to dig the ditch 
for the sewer is often found laying it also ; whereas no 
one but a skilled mechanic should be allowed to interfere 
with the construction of the house sewer. 

The proper size of the outside sewer to a house where 
water closets are to be used is found by experience to be 
six inches, internal diameter, and the spurs or outlets in 
the main sewers to which we connect the house-drain 



182 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

are generally that size. In regard to the pitch, or fall, 
the house sewer should have, I would say, give it all 
you can get of a gradual or uniform fall, and not 
irregular ; but it should never be less than one-quarter 
of an inch to one foot. It is the best way to have the 
entire ditch dug before any part of the pipe is laid, and 
as the distance in many cases is not far it could often be 
done. In this way we can always get a more perfect 
grade. Great care should be taken, where the earth is 
filted ground, that it is made solid, and not allow the 
pipe to sag by the settling of earth. For this important 
piece of work no kind of material is too good. But in 
solid earth, starting from a point about ten feet away 
from the building wall to the sewer in the street, we find 
that salt-glazed, vitrified, or terra-cotta pipe will do very 
well. It is made in convenient lengths and shapes and 
is easily handled. Care must be exercised also in ex- 
amining each piece of this pipe before it is laid in order 
to see that it is smooth, round, and free from cracks. 
In laying the pipes see that the ends fit closely all 
around, and each entered one into the other the entire 
length of the hub. To make the joints of the pipe 
tight use nothing but the best hydraulic cement, and see 
that it is well pressed into the space between the two 
pipes. It is a good plan to use a swab, or brush of soft 
material, to fit the pipe, so as to keep the pipe clear 
from cement or other materials that might be pressed 
through the joints. In filling the earth in around this 



SANITARY PLUMBING 183 

sewer pipe, it should be done before the cement is set ; 
first with fine soil carefully laid on each side and over 
the pipe, so that it may be covered over with about three 
or four inches ; then ram the soil on each side and over 
the pipe so that it will have a good solid bed. All this 
should be done before the cement on the joints of the 
pipe is entirely set. There will be no chance for cracked 
joints or leaks if the work is done in this way. The 
ditch may then be filled up without any further regard 
for the pipe. 

No terra-cotta pipe should be used inside of a house, 
or any nearer than about ten feet, for the reason that in 
case the sewer gets stopped up in some way, and filled 
with water, to some of the upper fixtures, it would not 
stand the pressure. In fact, a terra-cotta pipe is never 
intended to carry any pressure, as it is rarely ever filled 
with water. Then for the balance of the house sewer or 
soil pipe we must use some other kind of material, 
and we find the best thing for that, taking everything 
into consideration, such as cost, durability, and con- 
venience of handling, is cast iron. For this purpose we 
have a pipe known to the trade as cast-iron soil pipe. 
It is made generally in two weights called ''Standard " 
and " Extra Heavy." The " Standard " is a little too 
light for good work, but the " Extra Heavy " is all that 
could be desired for the best kind of work. The joints 
of this pipe are made tight with melted lead poured into 
them, and then calked or compressed by a hammer and 



184 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

tool for this purpose, the joint first being packed with 
picked oakum, so that the melted lead will not run 
through to the inside of the pipe. Now we start with 
our cast-iron pipe to continue the work from where we 
stopped off with the terra-cotta pipe. The first joint, 
like the others already laid, will have to be made with 
cement, and this is the last cement joint in connection 
with the house sewer. 

As the sewage in the street sewer is continually under- 
going decomposition, it naturally forms a pressure of 
gas, and that gas is continually pressing against the out- 
lets of the sewer, and will always escape through any 
free passage. Now there is no person who wants to 
ventilate the city sewer through his house, and I think 
he is right ; he will have enough to contend with in 
taking care of what accumulates in his own sewer. 
Therefore we place either outside of the building wall, 
where it may be easy of access, or just inside of the 
cellar, a trap to prevent the sewer gas from the city 
sewer coming into the pipes of the house. This trap is 
a bent pipe, and is made deep enough to hold water, so 
that the gas cannot pass through it. The trap is fitted 
with what is called a hand-hole, for the purpose of clean- 
ing in case of stoppage. It will also prevent anything 
from going out that should not be placed in the soil 
pipe, so that things that will not easily dissolve will not 
pass this point of the sewer. You can, therefore, look 
for a stoppage, when there is one, at the trap. We 



SANITARY PLUMBING . 186 

then continue the cast-iron soil pipe up through the 
house, making connections with wastes of all fixtures, 
and continuing on up and out through the roof. For 
ordinary sized dwelling houses this cast-iron soil pipe 
should be not less than four inches in diameter on the 
inside, and should never be reduced to less than four 
inches where it passes through the roof. 

Having completed our house drain from the street 
sewer or cesspool to the house and up through the 
house, making connections with the different fixtures, 
and then continuing above the highest fixture and out 
through the roof, with its main trap in the cellar or just 
outside the building wall, to shut off the gas from the 
city sewer, it might be asked : Why continue the soil 
pipe out through the roof of the building or any further 
up than the highest fixture if the trap in the main house 
drain prevents sewer gas from coming in ? There are a 
great many reasons, and every person living in a house 
containing these modern conveniences should know 
them. It is a fact that every piece of waste or soil pipe, 
no matter how long or short it may be, nor from what 
kind of fixture it carries the waste water, is similar to a 
small gas machine. It continues to make gas as long as 
it is in use — or, in other words, gas is continually forming 
from the decomposing of the foul matter which adheres 
to the sides of the pipes. 

This being the case, we must provide, a way for the 
local sewer gas to escape from the waste pipes. And for 



186 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

this purpose we extend the main soil pipe out through 
the roof and above all windows of the house. We can 
now see how necessary it is to have a sewer gas trap 
under each fixture, separately, as well as the one in the 
main sewer, and these should be placed as close as pos- 
sible to the fixtures. The best kinds of traps, for the 
different fixtures, will be described in future with the 
fixture. To remove this local sewer gas is what we call 
waste or soil pipe ventilation ; the fresh-air inlet is a 
current of fresh air passing up through the soil pipe, 
carrying with it the sewer gas as fast as it accumulates. 
This is accomplished by having a branch connected with 
the sewer on the inside of the main trap, three or four 
inches in diameter, and carried just above the surface of 
the ground outside of the building wall. We find some 
terrible mistakes made at times with this ventilation by 
men who may be able to do a good piece of work 
mechanically, but do not know enough about it scien- 
tifically, and through their ignorance spoil the work, 
deceive themselves, and endanger the lives of the occu- 
pants of the house. They sometimes run the soil pipe 
into the chimney flue in place of running it out through 
the roof, perhaps to save a few feet of pipe. And then 
they will tell you that you will get better ventilation 
that way. Beware of the plumber that tells you this. 
He either wishes to deceive you, or he does not under- 
stand his work, and should not be allowed to superintend 
the plumbing of a house. To ventilate the soil pipes of 



SANITARY PLUMBING 187 

a house we do not want much force of pressure or suc- 
tion in the soil pipe, because too much suction would 
draw water from the traps under the fixture and break 
the seals. Then in case the flue was allowed to become 
cold, and the atmosphere become heavy, the sewer gas 
would then fall back and be pressed down and out 
through the broken seals of the traps, or out through 
some other opening in the chimney flue, and fill the 
house with sewer gas. A hot chimney flue will do very 
well for local ventilation, but not for the ventilation of 
soil pipe. Another great mistake often made in connec- 
tion with the main soil pipe is where the soil pipe extends 
through the roof, to allow a piece of sheet-iron pipe at 
that point in place of cast iron. Because sheet iron 
soon becomes corroded by the action of the sewer gas, 
and without knowing it you are ventilating your soil 
pipe into the attic, or under the roof of your hoiise, 
from which point it can often get to any part of the 
house. Sheet iron is put on to save cost. It is much 
easier to make a storm-tight joint on the roof with sheet 
iron than with cast iron. But the cast-iron job can be 
made just as tight, and will stand ten times as long. 

In connecting the rainwater conductor pipes to the 
sewer, you must also be careful and, although they may 
be outside of the house, you still have sewer gas to con- 
tend with. A good way to connect the drain for the 
roof-water pipes is to have a branch in the main house 
drain, just outside of the main house trap, and at this 



188 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

point, far enough below the surface so that the water 
will not freeze, place a trap. This will take care of all 
the roof-water conductors which are intended to drain 
into the sewer. The trap should also be located where 
it would be easy of access, as sand, pieces of wood, slate, 
and leaves often find their way into this drain, and occa- 
sionally stop this trap. If it is not possible to make one 
trap answer for all these conductors, there should be 
others put in, so that each line of conductor pipe is 
properly trapped. Another false impression exists in 
this line. Some people think that the conductors which 
extend up to a very high point on the house would act 
as good ventilators for the sewer. Even if they did, we 
have no right to ventilate the city sewer. And the 
house sewer does not require it. But this rainwater 
conductor pipe is generally either sheet iron or tin, and 
will not hold a pressure of gas, so that, should its upper 
end be very high, sewer gas might escape from it at any 
point, and flow into the windows of the house. This is 
something which frequently occurs. 

The rainwater drain should be carefully laid on solid 
earth, and far enough from the building wall so that 
should it leak the water would not find its way into the 
cellar. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 189 

THE GENERAL CAUSE OF WET CELLARS— HOW THEY 
CAN BE MADE DRY, AND HOW TO PROPERLY TAKE 
CARE OF SURFACE WATER THAT MAY FIND ITS 
WAY INTO THE CELLAR. 

No house can be in good sanitary condition that has 
a wet cellar. And it is a fact that not more than five 
per cent, of the houses built in this country have dry 
cellars. The bad effects caused by the dampness in cel- 
lars are so numerous and common that it is not neces- 
sary to mention them here. This cellar dampness does 
not alone injure the health of the human lives in the 
house, but it is also the cause of more decay and ruin to 
the house, the furniture and the fixtures, than any other 
wear and tear they could get. 

I have often noticed in houses where they had wet 
cellars, where some of the occupants had occasion to go 
down into the cellar, they were always in such a hurry to 
leave it on account of the dampness. And 1 have fre- 
quently heard ladies caution their children to keep away 
from the open cellar door, fearing they might inhale 
some of the cellar air. You may keep the cellar door 
closed, but this does not prevent the atmosphere of the 
cellar from coming up. There is no wooden floor in the 
ordinary dwelling house air tight. Consequently, the 
air from the cellar finds its way up through the house 
in thousands of places, and is inhaled by the occupants. 

As one illustration, suppose you have a small gas 



190 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

leak in the cellar, will you not notice the odor of that 
gas all over the house ? Bad air from cellars is more 
dangerous than illuminating gas in a house, because a 
gas leak will soon be noticed and stopped, whereas the 
damp, foul air of the cellar is scarcely ever noticed, and 
the cellar is seldom put in a good sanitary condition. 
If your cellar is dirty your house is not clean in any 
part of it. A dry cellar is not perfect, and impure air 
may come from it unless it is well ventilated ; that is, 
to allow fresh air to circulate through it as often as pos- 
sible. And this same principle applies to every room 
in the house. One of the old sayings is, that you can- 
not get a first-class article for a second-class price. This 
holds good in regard to the kind of labor and material 
used in constructing the cellar, foundations, and walls 
of the house. It would appear that most people think 
anything is good enough for us in concealed places. 
But no greater mistake could be made than to econ- 
omize in the concealed sanitary arrangements of a house. 
The cellar of any house can be made dry. But the 
proper time to prevent dampness is when the cellar is 
being built. It can be done after, but it will cost a 
great deal more. To guard against the trouble, we 
must begin at the very foundation of the building. I 
have noticed recently in many places the mason, after 
having completed the stone work of the cellar wall, put- 
ting a coat of asphalt varnish on the outside of the wall 
and then filling in the earth over the varnish ; this is 



SANITARY PLUMBING 191 

simply nonsense. In the first place, the ordinary house 
cellar wall is not built to hold a pressure of water, and 
it is not intended to do so. If it was we would have to 
build them on the same principle as the cistern, so as to 
be able to hold water. And for this the ordinary thick- 
ness of stone would not do. We have to use brick laid 
in cement and then plaster the entire surface with good 
cement. This work must be well done by good mechan- 
ics or it will not hold water. Now this is what you 
expect of your ordinary stone wall, 12 or 18 inches wide, 
with not half enough of mortar in it to hold itself 
together ; in fact, the mortar rarely ever sets at all. It 
is simply impossible for such a cellar wall to hold a 
pressure of water. If your cellar is below the surface of 
the ground, and you have no way to drain the bottom 
of it in order to have it dry, you would have to build it 
on the cistern plan, and this would be very costly. 

But where there is good drainage facilities there 
should be no excuse for wet cellars. In excavating for 
the cellar we should dig out about 3 feet wider on all 
sides than the outside of the cellar wall, and about 12 
inches deeper than the footing course of the wall. Then 
the wall should be made as perfect on the outside as on 
the inside ; that is, it should be what is called a two- 
faced walled. In this way the joints are fitted better, 
and every joint should be entirely filled with good mor- 
tar all the way through. By having the wall faced on 
the outside admits of the joints being properly pointed, 



192 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

which is more of a necessity than pointing them on the 
inside. This can only be done by having the proper 
room, and 3 feet in the clear will do, although a little 
more will answer better. After the cellar wall is finished, 
clean out the space all around the outside, leaving a 
ditch about 18 inches wide and, as I said before, about 
12 inches below the footing course. This ditch should 
be graded to the drain or street. After the grade is set- 
tled lay in a good-sized porous drain tile, fill in with 
gravel or small stones up to a level with the top of the 
footing course. Then fill in against the cellar wall from 
the bottom up to the surface, about 18 inches wide, of 
fine soil or clay, packed tight and made solid, and filling 
the balance of the ditch from this point out with gravel 
or stones all the way up to the surface. To do this 
properly it would be necessary to use some planks or 
boards, and fill in section by section, first a section of 
fine soil against the wall, then the balance of the ditch 
from that out until the entire ditch is filled. This gravel- 
ly section would catch all the surface water coming from 
any direction toward the building, from the surface to a 
point below the cellar bottom, and would be carried 
away through the tile drains, so that not a drop of 
water could reach even-the outside of the cellar wall. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 193 

VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR THE PLUMBER IN 
REGARD TO THE KITCHEN SINK, 

In the well-appointed kitchen of the modern house 
there is, perhaps, nothing of more importance than the 
kitchen sink ; and on account of the amount of work it 
has to perform, and the hard usage it gets, we might 
naturally expect more or less trouble from it. In the 
first place, we should know what kind is best for domes- 
tic purposes, and also from a sanitary point of view. 
We shall therefore have to consider the different mate- 
rials used for this purpose, showing their advantages 
and disadvantages, before we can appreciate what kind, 
on an average, will prove to be the most satisfactory. 

Sinks are made of plain wood, and wood lined with 
sheet metal, such as copper, zinc, and galvanized iron. 
They are also made of sheet steel, both in the plain and 
galvanized finish. There are cast-iron sinks finished in 
the plain iron, also galvanized and enameled. Then we 
have the crockery or earthenware sink, also soapstone ; 
and still another kind is made of compressed paper. 

Any of these may look very nice to the eye when 
new. It will, therefore, be seen that to most people it 
is a hard matter to make a proper selection of this 
fixture ; but to the man having years of practical expe- 
rience with every kind and make of sink mentioned 
above, it is quite easy to come to a proper conclusion 
in this matter. And his knowledge in this respect 



194 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

should be both interesting and profitable to the good 
housekeeper. 

The most objectionable and most dangerous of all 
sinks, according to my experience, is the wooden sink 
lined with sheet metal ; and it matters very little wheth- 
er the lining is of copper, galvanized iron, or zinc, 
because the same results are sure to come, only they 
come sooner where the cheapest metals are used. Cop- 
per lining will last much longer than either galvanized 
iron or zinc, but it costs a great deal more. There are 
tw^o general objects in using wooden sinks lined with 
sheet metal. Some people use them because they think 
they will save something on the cost of the sink, while 
others who favor this kind of sink think there will be 
less breaking of dishes and crockeryware, on account of 
the material from which it is made being soft and some- 
what pliable. The plain wooden sink without lining of 
any kind would answer very well for a short time, if we 
could keep it from leaking when used ; but this is not 
easy, as it has so many chances to swell with the water 
in the daytime, and then shrink by the heat and dry- 
ness at night. It therefore soon cracks and leaks. 

The work of keeping this sink clean and in good san- 
itary condition is much harder than preventing it from 
leaking. To keep this sink in anything like a clean con- 
dition it must be scrubbed with a good stiff brush, using 
plenty of soap and scalding hot water, then dried out as 
well as can be every evening. Otherwise we cannot 



SANITARY PLUMBING 195 

have a clean wooden kitchen sink. Now, if we lined 
this sink with some sheet metal, such as copper, galvan- 
ized iron, or zinc, we should not be bothered with it 
leaking from the cracking of the wood, and we should 
not have so much scrubbing to do in order to keep it 
clean, and for a few days or weeks — I would not say 
months — we should naturally think that this kind of 
sink is the proper one to have. But wait a little while 
before you recommend this to your neighbor. There is 
nothing equals experience for enabling one to know 
exactly the condition of things. 

TROUBLE BEGINS WITH THE LINED SINK. 

Like everything else when new, we give it a great 
deal more care for a few weeks than it ever gets there- 
after ; and as time goes on we become more and more 
careless, and especially after the new glossy or bright 
finish has disappeared. We then begin to think that it 
does not require as much care as when it was new and 
bright. And long before the actual wear and tear have 
caused any trouble to the sink through carelessness, we 
find some holes punched or cut through the lining, and 
done generally by throwing or allowing some sharp 
instrument to fall into it. Now the great trouble begins. 
The water finds its way under the lining, and this is 
often allowed to leak for some time before it is repaired, 
because it is such a small leak. This is where a small 
leak is more dangerous than a larger one, for the reason 



196 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

that the large leak would be fixed at once. This small 
leak under the lining of the sink keeps the woodwork 
wet, which soon causes the wood to decay ; and the 
sink waste-water, having a large percentage of fatty or 
vegetable matter in it, soon decomposes and forms into 
a gas, which is not only dangerous to health, but has a 
tendency to destroy the underside of the lining, and the 
destruction of the lining is greater from this cause than 
the regular wear and tear on the outside. 

It is impossible to clean out the filthy matter which 
underlies this kind of sink without entirely removing 
the lining ; and when this is done we shall find that the 
woodwork will also have to be replaced. By this time 
it will be seen that the lined wooden sink is not nearly 
as good as the sink without lining. And we will also 
see that there have been just as many dishes broken as 
with any other kind of sink. 

The cast-iron sink is made in three finishes, the plain 
finish, the galvanized finish, and the enameled finish. 
The galvanized cast-iron sink costs about twice as much 
as the plain cast-iron sink, and the cast-iron enameled 
finish about three times the price. There is not much 
difference between these three styles of finish, except in 
the appearance. The plain sink will last as long and 
stand just as much hard work as the others. And from 
a sanitary point of view it is just as good, and in many 
cases much better, than either the galvanized or enam- 
eled finish. The galvanized sink is coated both inside 



SANITARY PLUMBING 197 

and out, and the enameled sink has the enameled finish 
only on the inside. 

The galvanized iron kitchen sink makes a very nice 
finish, and always looks well because it cannot rust and 
never requires painting. The galvanized coating will 
always remain on the outside, but will soon wear off on 
the bottom of the inside ; still, this is no great objection, 
because where the coating is worn off it will be found to 
be quite smooth, and can be easily cleaned. The object- 
ionable points in regard to this kind of sink are, first, 
its cost over the plain cast-iron, and although the out- 
side of it is a little better than the plain iron in a san- 
itary point of view, its inside is not near so good, for 
the reason that the galvanized coating is scarcely ever 
smooth but often very rough, which roughness holds the 
dirt so that it can never be properly cleaned. 

THE CAST-IRON ENAMELED SINK. 

This finish of sink is, indeed, a great step in the 
advancement of sanitary improvements. When made 
perfectly and used for light work it is all that could be 
desired, because it is coated with a material which looks 
well, and is also indestructible against the action of 
gases or acids. It is also a smooth finish and easily 
kept clean ; but it will not answer very well for heavy 
or rough work. Consequently we might say it will 
hardly be the proper thing for the average kitchen. 
In the larger sink this enameled coating cracks off easily 



198 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

when heavy utensils are placed in it, which causes the 
sink to bend, and the porcelain finish, having very little 
elasticity, must naturally crack. It sometimes cracks by 
the uneven or sudden expansion and contraction of the 
iron, and as soon as the coating is partly peeled off 
the sink becomes a bad-looking sight, and is then san- 
itarily bad. 

OPEN KITCHEN SINKS. 

The cast-iron sink should never be cased up with 
woodwork ; and even a wooden cap around the top rim 
should not be used. It would be better to occasionally 
break some of the dishes than to run the chances of 
getting some decomposed, poisonous vegetable matter 
mixed up with food to be used on the table. The open 
sink should stand on cast-iron legs or brackets, and have 
no fixed woodwork around it whatever. Woodwork 
around the kitchen sink is not only unsanitary, but it is 
a good place for the breeding of cockroaches. 

THE CROCKERY OR EARTHENWARE SINK. 

This sink is ver>^ good in regard to a sanitary point of 
view. It looks well and will not absorb moisture. Its 
surface is smooth and can be easily kept clean. But it 
is of too brittle a nature to answer for the hard, rough 
work of the kitchen. The crockery sink will do very 
well for the butler's pantry, where only the silverware, 
the china, and the glassware are to be washed. But 



SANITARY PLUMBING 199 

great care must be taken of them, as they are easily 
cracked and broken. 

THE SHEET STEEL SINK. 

The sink made from pressed sheet steel, or iron, 
recently placed on the market, was expected to supersede 
the cast-iron sink, but the expectations have not been 
realized, and I don't think they ever will be. While the 
pressed metal sink has some strong points in its favor, 
it has also some weak ones. This make of sink is 
pressed out of one piece of sheet metal. In order to 
stand this process of construction it requires the very 
best of material. There will be no such a thing as sand 
holes in this sink, nor imperfections that may soon cause 
it to leak, and it cannot be cracked by heavy weights 
placed in it ; neither can it be cracked by expansion 
or contraction when hot or cold water is poured into it, 
which often happens to the cast sink. 

It is also made in different finishes, plain, galvanized, 
and enameled. It is also sanitarily good. Its objection- 
able points are its cost, being considerably higher than 
the cast-iron sink. Besides, it cannot be made to fill all 
shapes and places, and it being made of thin material 
when set up, its edges require some wooden finish, 
which is also very objectionable. 



200 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

THE SOAPSTONE SINK. 

This is a sink that when properly set up and properly- 
cared for will prove very satisfactory for kitchen use. 
Soapstone has some natural qualities which recommend 
it highly for many things in the culinary and sanitary 
arrangements of a house. It will not absorb moisture; 
it is not affected by the action of acids ; oils or grease 
will not enter its pores ; it admits of a smooth finish ; 
it is not affected by hot water, and is consequently a 
good sanitary article when used as a kitchen sink. It 
should be set on a good solid foundation, as it is quite 
heavy. I find that where it is possible the best way to 
set the soapstone sink is on brick piers, built in mortar. 
This makes an everlasting job. Where it is not con- 
venient or desirous to use brick we should use cast or 
good heavy wrought iron stands, but no woodwork 
whatever for this purpose. 

THE COMPRESSED PAPER SINK. 

The fiber or compressed paper sink recently placed on 
the market is not a proper thing for kitchen use from 
any standpoint, although it looks well when new, and 
to an inexperienced person it might be often selected in 
preference to something a thousand times better. There 
is nothing to it after the glossy or hard coating finish is 
worn off, and it will not take long to do this. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 201 

CARE OF THE KITCHEN SINK— HOW ITS WASTE PIPE 
SHOULD BE TRAPPED AND CONNECTED TO THE 
SEWER, AND WHY THERE IS SO MUCH TROUBLE 
WITH THEM. 

Having just described the different kinds of kitchen 
sinks, showing their advantages and disadvantages from 
the different standpoints, it might be proper at this 
time to now show how to properly use them. If we 
will remember one fact in regard to the kitchen sink, 
when we are using it, there will not be one-half the 
trouble with them, and that is, that the sink is not in- 
tended to carry off anything but water, and not very 
dirty water at that. In the first place, the ordinary 
kitchen sink has a waste outlet for a one-and-one-quarter- 
inch waste pipe, and that is the size pipe generally used. 
Now it is not hard to see that such a small pipe, with 
its traps, turns, and bends, will not carry away the 
potato peelings, nor the parings of any kind of fruit or 
vegetables ; neither can it carry off large pieces of meat 
nor small bones. And it cannot carry large quantities 
of melted grease. It cannot very well carry away saw- 
dust from the ice that is sometimes washed in it ; it is 
not the proper pipe to carry away the tea-leaves, nor the 
coffee-grounds — or, in other words, it is not a slop sink. 
There are places for such refuse, but it is not the kitchen 
sink. 

Give the sink, with its trap and waste pipe, a fair 



202 lawyer's AMERICAN 

chance. If we make a mistake in using it, from which 
trouble may arise, we should not condemn the thing, 
and also find fault with the plumber, who, perhaps, did 
the work correctly. Whether the sink waste pipe is 
connected to the main sewer, or simply run outdoors 
through the side of the house, it should have a trap in 
it. This trap is a bend in the pipe, and made so that it 
will hold water at all times, for the purpose of prevent- 
ing air coming up through the waste pipe and into the 
house ; consequently, care should be taken to locate the 
trap close to the sink, so that the water in it may not 
freeze in winter. Many persons think that where they 
have only a short piece of waste pipe from the sink and 
it is run outdoors that it should not require a trap, but 
they are very much mistaken. If there is any waste 
pipe at all connected to the kitchen sink it should be 
trapped. 

There are a great many kinds of traps in the market 
for sanitary fixtures, and many claims made for them 
by their inventors. But for the kitchen sink, where a 
grease trap is not used, I know of none better than the 
ordinary pressed lead trap, and this should always 
have a brass trap screw in the bottom, for the purpose 
of cleaning in case of a stoppage. The best kind of pipe 
to use for the waste of sinks is lead pipe, because it is 
very smooth on the inside, and gives little resistance to 
what passes through it ; it can be bent more easily than 
any other pipe, and therefore it is possible to get 



SANITARY PLUMBING 203 

graceful curves, avoiding sharp bends, which are very bad 
in any waste pipe. It is also a material that will last for 
a long time and give good satisfaction. 

Greasy water poured into the kitchen sink is the cause 
of the most trouble with it. Grease from the kitchen 
sink will not only stop up the sink waste pipe, but it 
very often stops up the main sewer. I have seen places 
where grease from the kitchen stopped up solidly an 8-inch 
sewer pipe. And when a pipe becomes choked with 
grease there is no such a thing as forcing it out by press- 
ure. It is also too late to use potash or lye for the 
purpose of cutting it away. The only remedy in such a 
case is to open the pipe and take out the grease. This 
is often very expensive, and costs a great deal more than 
a good grease trap that could have been placed on the 
sink in the beginning, and would have prevented all such 
trouble. There is a device made specially for the kitchen 
sink to prevent grease from getting into the waste 
pipes. It also traps the pipe against air or sewer gas 
coming into the house, and this is called a grease trap. 

I am satisfied that if the people knew the great utility 
of the grease trap they would not have a sink set up 
without it. In many places where the grease trap is 
used it is a source of revenue as well as a prevention 
against the stopping of pipes by saving the grease, 
which is caught in the trap, and selling it for softsoap. 
The odor from the kitchen sink waste pipe is very much 
worse than that from a water closet waste pipe, and it 



204 LAWLER*S AMERICAN 

is principally on account of the greasy substance which 
clings to its walls. 

To clear the kitchen sink waste pipe when it is partly 
stopped with grease there is nothing better than to let 
the hot water run through it for some time ; but the 
water must be boiling hot in order to melt the grease 
and carry it along to the main sewer. There is more 
trouble and damage done to the sink waste pipe from 
small dribbling amounts of water running through it 
than from larger quantities. It is always better to have 
the waste pipe filled when water is running through it, 
because it then gets a chance to wash all parts of the 
pipe. Grease forms in a waste pipe just like the forma- 
tion of ice in a partly filled vessel, although it congeals 
at a much higher temperature. But if the pipe were 
entirely filled when the greasy water was running through 
it, the grease would not have a chance to form a bridge 
across the pipe and become solid. Therefore, the flush- 
ing principle is particularly good for the kitchen sink, 
and there are sinks made with a flushing device to ac- 
comphsh this purpose. This device is a receptacle 
placed under the sink and attached to the waste pipe, 
and holds two or three gallons of water. When it is 
nearly filled with waste water from the sink the water 
flows over, and forms a syphon which draws out its 
entire contents, filling the waste pipe full while it is 
running, then stops entirely until the receptacle is filled 
again, continuing automatically. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



205 



ALL WASTE PIPES ENTERING A HOUSE SHOULD BE 
TRAPPED. 

For the purpose of illustrating to the plumber the 
importance of having traps connected with every de- 
scription of waste pipe in a house, no matter how long 
or short the waste pipe may be, or whether it is con- 
nected to a sewer or simply ending out through the side 




Fig. 69. 

of the house, I make the illustration Fig. 69. We will 
suppose that Fig. 69 is a kitchen sink set in a house, 
and there is no sewer to connect the waste pipe with, 
and the waste water is allowed to fall on the surface of 
the ground on the outside of the building wall, as 
shown. In such a case as this the owner of a house 



206 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

having such a job done would naturally object to having 
a trap placed in such a short piece of waste pipe, and 
especially because it did not connect with any sewer. 
This is where the owner makes a great mistake for not 
allowing a trap to be placed under the sink, as shown, 
and the plumber who sets a sink under such circum- 
stances without a trap makes a greater mistake. As 
stated before in another part of this book, every inch 
of waste pipe, no matter from what kind of fixture 
it carries the waste water, is similar to a small gas 
machine. That gas is continually being made or formed 
in it through the decomposing of the foul matter which 
adheres to its inner walls ; therefore it is very necessary 
to trap a kitchen sink even situated as the one shown 
in Fig. 69. The gas forming in such a piece of waste 
pipe would not travel outward, but would, under every 
condition of the atmosphere, move with considerable 
velocity into the house. 

THE SINK ON THE SECOND FLOOR. 

Still another point I wish to illustrate in regard to 
setting a sink on the second, or even a higher, floor 
where there is simply a surface drainage, and that is, 
that it is not alone necessary to have a trap under such 
a sink, but in such a case, as shown in Fig. 70, we must 
also ventilate the trap, as shown, by having a pipe con- 
nected to the crown of the trap the same size as the 
main waste pipe, and extending it up and out through 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



207 



the roof. It might be said, why all this expense and 
trouble where the pipe is not even connected with a 
sewer? And the plumber should know the reasons why, 
and also in all cases refuse to do work where the owners 
of a house will not allow him to do the work properly — 




Fig. 70. 

that is, to both trap and ventilate the waste pipe in all 
cases. In such a piece of work as shown in Fig. 70, 
with the waste pipe ventilated, the fresh air would 
travel up from the bottom and out through the top of 
the pipe, taking away with it all accumulated foul air 
arising from the decomposing of the foul matter which 



208 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

had clung to the inner walls of the pipe. And this 
same extension of the pipe from the crown of the trap 
has another mission to perform, and that is to prevent 
the water from being syphoned out of the trap by the 
action of the downflow of waste water, which leaves a 
partial vacuum after it in the waste pipe. This vacuum 
is filled by air, which is drawn down from above the 
roof through the ventilating pipe, and in this way pre- 
vents the water in the trap from being sucked out, thus 
preserving the seal of the trap at all times ; so that in 
any case where there is length enough to a waste pipe 
to cause the water to be syphoned out of the trap, the 
waste pipe must be ventilated on the same principle as 
shown in Fig. 70. 

TWO OR MORE SINKS CONNECTED TO ONE WASTE 
PIPE. 

In Fig. 71 we have still another arrangement of 
waste pipes, such as may be found in the average house, 
and the point that I wish to show in this is that one 
pipe will not answer to carry off the waste water and at 
the same time act as a ventilating pipe in places where 
two or more fixtures are used, one above another, as 
shown in Fig. 71 ; and, therefore, in all such cases we 
will have to use a separate pipe to connect with the 
crown of each trap, as it extends up from the trap 
situated at the lowest point to the one at the highest 
elevation, and then extends out through the roof. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



209 



The reason why it is necessary to extend the ven- 
tilating pipe down to the lowest fixtures, and not use 
the waste pipe as a part of the ventilator, is that in 
cases where the lower traps had no separate ventilating 
branch it would be quite possible for the water seals in 




them to be broken by the action of water flowing down 
from some upper fixture, which would cause a suction 
and draw down air into the traps not ventilated, which 
would naturally take with it part of the water that had 
been in the trap for the purpose of sealing the outlet of 



210 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the fixture against sewer gas. As stated before, while 
these waste pipes, as shown in Figs. 69, 70, and 71, are 
not connected to a sewer or cesspool, it is still necessary 
to properly trap and ventilate them. This same prin- 
ciple of waste-pipe trapping and ventilating holds good 
for not only kitchen sinks, but every description of 
plumbing fixtures that connect with soil or waste pipes. 

LEAD WASTE PIPE. 

For sinks, washbasins, bathtubs, laundrytubs, and 
such fixtures, there is nothing better to carry off the 
waste water than lead pipe, for the reason that lead 
pipe is made practically smooth on the inside, which 
gives the least resistance to the flow of water. Besides, 
in a lead waste pipe there is no chance for dirt and sedi- 
ment to cling to it, and therefore a lead waste pipe will 
carr}' off more waste water than any other kind of waste 
pipe of the same size. Another point in favor of the 
lead waste pipe for all branches leading from small 
fixtures is that it can be bent in graceful curves to not 
only answer the different positions and situations, but 
allow the water to flow freely through such curves. 
Another point which the plumber should not forget in 
such waste pipes is that where there is one or more 
floors to pass through with a long line of vertical pipe, 
the pipe should be supported at each floor by the use 
of flange joints, as shown in Fig. 71. These hold up the 
weight of the pipe, and prevent it from sagging and 



SANITARY PLUMBING 211 

pulling itself away from the fixtures, besides making a 
better finish on the floor through which it must pass. 

GREASE TRAPS FOR KITCHEN SINKS. 

In places where there is much distance between the 
sewer or place to which waste water must be conveyed 
and the house or building it is to be carried from, it is a 
very good plan to use grease traps in every case under 
kitchen sinks or any sink receiving waste water charged 
with grease. My plan would be to have a separate waste 
pipe for the kitchen sink alone, extending the entire 
distance to the sewer, having no other fixture connect- 
ing with it. This should be done, by all means, in large 
institutions, hotels, and such buildings, and by so doing 
there would be less expense in repairing and very much 
better results from a sanitary point of view. 

To construct a grease trap so that it will be most 
effective and accomplish the desired results there are 
two things necessary. First, the trap or receptacle must 
be quite large in order to hold a large amount of grease, 
so that it will not be necessary to remove the accumu- 
lated grease very often ; and secondly, it is necessary 
to have some way of cooling the greasy matter while 
passing through the trap, in order that the grease will 
be congealed in the trap and not escape into the sewer 
beyond the trap. A simple but good arrangement of 
such a grease trap is shown in Fig. 72. This grease trap 
is simply a small brick vault built just outside of the 



212 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



building wall. For the ordinary-sized house this vault 
might be about 2 feet in diameter and located deep 
enough to correspond to the pitch of the waste pipe 




from the house, and having a wide, close-fitted remov- 
able cover or top about even with the surface of the 
ground. This vault should be perfectly water-tight on 



SANITARY PLUMBING 213 

the bottom and sides ; the brick laid in cement, or if 
stone cemented all around, so that the bottom would 
hold water. The outlet pipe from this vault, as shown, 
should be an iron bend cocked by lead to a joint of 
cast-iron pipe and then connected to the terra-cotta 
pipe, which will answer for the balance of the line to 
the sewer. There should be from 6 to 12 inches of 
space between the mouth of the elbow in the vault and 
the bottom, in order to hold a good quantity of water. 
The inlet pipe from the sink to the vault should enter a 
few inches above the top of the bend or outlet. This 
grease trap, being situated in the ground, soon cools the 
hot, greasy water, and as the grease congeals it floats to 
the surface, and being quite light, it will extend to a 
considerable height above the surface of the water. 
In this way such a trap will hold quite a large amount 
of grease, and will run a long time without requiring 
attention. When the trap is to be cleaned it is only 
necessary to remove the cap from the vault and skim 
off the grease. The bend on the outlet connection to 
the sewer also acts as a trap, and prevents sewer-gas 
from the main sewer entering the vault. Many other 
forms of the grease trap are used, which also do very 
well, one of which is shown in Fig. 73. 

This style, as shown, is made on the same general 
principle as the outside grease trap just described, but 
is made to connect directly to the sink or stand close to 
it in the house. These traps are made of brass and 



214 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



have a double cylinder. Between tlie two cylinders is 
a space for the circulation of cold water, for the purpose 
of cooling the hot grease in the trap proper or receiving 
chamber. This trap, as will be noticed by referring 
to Fig. 73, is connected with the water-supply pipes 
as well as the waste pipe. All the cold water passing 
from the supply pipe to the kitchen boiler, and also all 




Fig. 73. 
that is drawn from the kitchen faucet, first passes through 
the body of the grease trap, thus cooling the waste 
water in the trap and congealing the grease, which also 
floats to the upper part of the cylinder, and can be 
taken out- by removing the cover on the top for that 
purpose. I often wonder that architects do not cause 
more of such devices to be used in connection with the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 215 

plumbing fixtures of a house, as they are such great 
improvements over any arrangement without them. 

WHAT TO DO IN CASES OF EMERGENCY— HOW TO 
TEMPORARILY STOP LEAKS IN WATER PIPES AND 
PREVENT FURTHER DAMAGE UNTIL THE ARRIVAL 
OF THE PLUMBER TO DO THE REPAIRS. 

It is sometimes impossible to get the plumber, the 
gas or steam fitter, at short notice to attend to some 
disarrangement of the sanitary fixtures of the house 
which requires immediate attention, and therefore per- 
sons who occupy houses having such improvements 
should know what to do in cases of emergency. There 
are many reasons why we cannot at all times get the 
mechanic the very minute word is sent to his place of 
business. In the first place, our favorite plumber (if we 
have any) may not be at his place of business when the 
call is delivered, and there may not be a man in any of 
the other shops that could come at once. And this is 
not strange, because there is no concern doing business 
that could afford to keep a gang of mechanics sitting in 
the shop to be ready to jump, like a paid fireman, the very 
moment the call is given. We would not care to pay 
for part of his time spent sitting in the shop, in order 
to be ready when we want him, judging from the fault 
found with the time he spends in doing the work. We 
cannot always get the doctor as soon as we want him, 
even when the life of some member of our family de- 



216 lawler's AxMerican 

pends upon his immediate presence. So we will have 
to put up with the situation of things until the arrival 

of the plumber. 

WHEN THE MOST DANGER IS DONE. 
If we have a break in a water pipe, a leak in the gas 
or steam pipes, as a general rule it will be found to do 
more damage after such leak occurs than would cost to 
repair the original break, and simply because we don't 
act promptly and do something ourselves in place of 
letting the thing run until the plumber comes. At the 
same time it is best to send for the plumber, and have 
him come as soon as possible, so that the trouble may 
be fixed permanently. If our house was on fire, we 
would not be apt to stand around and wait until the fire 
company came without doing something to stop its 
progress. 

A LEAK IN THE WATER PIPE. 

What to do for temporary relief, or to prevent further 
damage from a leak in a water pipe, should interest 
every member of every family who occupy the modern 
house. A break in a water pipe is often the cause of 
more damage or expense than the first cost of the entire 
plumbing arrangements of a house, and that comes 
principally from our ignorance in knowing what to do 
in such cases of emergency. Every member of the 
family who is old enough to understand such matters, 
and also the domestic help, should be instructed in 



SANITARY PLUMBING 217 

regard to where and how to properly turn off the water 
should it ever become necessary by a break occurring in 
some of the pipes, so that it could be done at once, and 
prevent further damage, which will surely occur if 
neglected. There are peculiar circumstances at times 
when such troubles happen, and some people think that 
it might do more harm to shut off the water, and in such 
cases the pipe is allowed to leak and continue to do its 
damage until the plumber arrives. 

SHUT THE WATER OFF. 

• This reminds me of what happened to a business 
friend of mine a short time ago. He was in the millinery 
business, and happened to be in New York City pur- 
chasing goods for his store, when he received a telegram 
stating that during the night a water pipe on the floor 
above had sprung aleak. The water was coming down 
through the ceiling, destroying the goods and everything 
in the place, and asking him what they should do. 

His reply was very short, but proper, and was simply, 
" Shut off the water." 

THE LAUNDRY AND ITS FIXTURES — WHAT KIND OF 
WASHTRAYS ARE BEST AND WHERE TO LOCATE 
THEM. 

From a sanitary point of view, there is no part of the 
house with its fixtures that should have more considera- 
tion than the laundry. The laundry is something like 



218 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the kitchen. It is a place where a large amount of 
work has to be done, and any place or thing that gets 
hard usage should be made of the very best material. 
The laundry should be a special room made for the 
laundry work alone, and have as little woodwork in it 
as possible. The floors should be made of good con- 
crete work cemented, and the side walls should be 
plastered three or four feet high all around with cement. 
Goo# lime mortar will do to plaster the balance of the 
walls and ceilings. There should be a tight-fitting door 
from the laundry room to the other parts of the house, 
so that when in use the steam and odors which arise 
from soiled clothes will not be able to find their way all 
over. In some part of the cement floor there should be 
a waste pipe connection having a good strong strainer 
over it, because in using the laundry it is impossible to 
do the work without spattering or spilling water over 
the floor, and when the work is finished it can be cleaned 
quite easily and in good shape with hot water, some 
soap and a broom, allowing it all to flow into the floor 
waste connection. If this is done with good hot water, 
and done quickly, the floor will soon dry on account of 
the water heating the cement, and the laundry room 
will then not only be healthy, but it will look healthy. 

GOOD LIGHT AND VENTILATING NECESSARY. 

Although we may say that we do not IJve in the 
laundry, yet there is no part of the house that should 



SANITARY PLUMBING 219 

have better light or better air than this. If the laundry 
be located in the cellar the windows should be made 
low, and good large size, and made to swing open like 
double doors, so that in warm weather there would be 
plenty of air, and also good light to do work by. There 
should also be an outside door leading from the laundry 
to the yard, so that it would not be necessary in carry- 
ing the clothes to or from these places through any 
other part of the house. 

NEVER MAKE A LAUNDRY OF THE KITCHEN. 

It is no modern house where the laundry tubs are 
located in the kitchen. It would be ten times better to 
use the old-fashioned washtubs, and to do washing on 
the back porch, than have stationary laundry trays 
located in the kitchen. The washing can scarcely ever 
be started and completed between meals, consequently 
some of the meals would have to be prepared in the 
very midst of the laundry work, and perhaps clothes 
and victuals boiling on the stove at the same time. It 
is not difficult to see what the result would be in the 
case. The food when placed on the table would some- 
times taste of laundry soap, and whether noticed or not 
by the smell or taste, it would possibly contain dirt 
from soiled clothes, and the clothes even after being 
washed and dried would contain particles of the cooked 
food. This happens more particularly when the kitchen 
is small and poorly ventilated. 



220 



PROOF OF THE ABOVE STATEMENT. 



It is easy to prove this, and also easy for any person 
to understand it. Soiled clothes cannot be cleaned or 
washed unless they are boiled in water, because it ap- 
pears to require that temperature before the dirt in the 
clothes can be thoroughly dissolved. Now when this 
dirt falls away from the linen it joins the water, and 
therefore makes the water as bad as itself. Water forms 
steam when it reaches the boiling point, and, of course, 
steam being light and hot, rises and ascends up from 
the clothes boiler on the stove and often fills the room. 
Did you ever stop to think that this same steam was 
the dirty water containing whatever the dirt might have 
been on the clothes, and that it soon condenses and 
falls, alighting on everything in the room, no matter 
whether it be food or furniture. There may be no live 
germs in this filthy condensation, but we should guard 
against dead matter in our food. 

CAN TELL IT IS WASH-DAY FROM ANY PART OF THE 

HOUSE. 

It is not an uncommon thing to go even into the 
parlor of the so-called modern house on wash-day and 
there inhale steam and odors from the poorly -constructed 
laundry. If we wish to have a perfect laundry, after- 
preparing the room either as an annex to the house or 
in the cellar, with its concrete floor, its waste connec- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



221 



tion, cement side walls and plastered overhead, also 
good light and ventilation, we will now have to consider 
the washtrays ; and without waiting to show the differ- 
ence in the different kinds of laundry washtrays, there 
is, according to my experience, nothing as good as soap- 
stone. 

Soapstone makes the best kind of laundry tub from 
every point of view (except cheapness), and they are 




Fig. 74. — Soapstone Tubs. 

now almost as cheap as some iron or cement tubs. The 
soapstone is non-absorbent. It will not allow dirt 
to enter its pores. It is very smooth, and will not 
crack by the variations of heat and cold. This tub 
should be set on a good solid foundation of either brick 
piers or good strong iron legs ; there should be no 
woodwork around it whatever, and even a wooden or 
any kind of cover is very bad on a washtray. Some 
people intend to cover over the washtray for the pur- 
pose of making it answer also as an ironing board, but 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



it is scarcely ever used for this purpose. To close up 
the top of the washtrays we prevent the good air from 
circulating through them, and therefore what little 
particles of soap or other matter that may remain even 
after cleaning the tubs soon form into a foul gas which 
makes a very unpleasant smell when the cover is raised. 




Fig. 75. — Solid White Cj-ockery Washtiibs. 
OTHER MAKES OF WASHTRAYS. 

The above cut shows the general finish of the 
crockery tubs, with ash frame and galvanized iron legs. 
From a sanitary point of view, the wooden frame is 
bad, as it is impossible to clean under it ; and, be- 
sides, the tops of such tubs are never perfectly level, 
so that there is sure to be some large crevices between 
the Crocker}^ and the wooden frame in which dirt ac- 
cumulates. 

The crockery washtray is perhaps the next best 
article for the laundry. If it is made thick enough to 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



223 



stand the work and well glazed, it makes a very fine 
tub, but it must be handled with greater care, and 
where the glazed finish may be imperfect or worn off it 
will then absorb filth and become to some extent foul. 

The cut herewith, Fig. ']6, represents one style of cast- 
iron enameled washtrays made by the well-known J. L. 
Mott Iron Works of New York City. These tubs are 




Fig. '](i. — Cast-iron Enameled Washtubs. 



made in separate sections and can be easily placed so as 
to form a set of two, three, or four, as may be desired ; 
they are easily handled and make a good finish. The 
cast-iron enameled washtray if thickly coated and per- 
fect when new makes also a good tub as long as the 
enamel stands, but just as soon as the coating cracks or 
comes off in any way, the iron under the coating begins 
to rust and will then soil the clothes. The galvanized- 



224 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

iron washtray, after a very little usage, begins to rust, 
and is much worse than the enamel tub. Plain cast iron 
is not the proper material for this purpose at all. There 
are several makes of cement washtubs recently placed 
on the market and sometimes taken for soapstone. 
Cement cannot be made that will not absorb moisture 
They soon become foul, and therefore I do not consider 
this a sanitary article. 




Fig. 'J']. — Slate Washtrays. 

Washtrays are made of slate, and the slate tub does 
very well where it stands, but it cracks too easily and 
gives considerable trouble in this way. The common 
wooden washtray or the wooden tray lined with sheet 
metal are not sanitary ; they cannot be made so, and 
therefore should never be used at all. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 225 

LAUNDRY TUBS SHOULD NOT HAVE OVERFLOWS. 

Before leaving the subject of laundry tubs, I desire 
to call the attention of not only the plumber, but the 
architect and the householder, to the matter of overflows 
from washtrays situated in laundries. Architects often 
call for such overflows in such cases, and of course the tubs 
must be set as specified by the architect. And yet from 
my personal experience I am satisfied that the overflow 
connections from laundry tubs are more of an nuisance 
than anything else, besides being very bad from a sanitary 
point of view. As a rule overflows from any kind of 
fixture, such as bathtubs, washbasins, and sinks, are bad ; 
they are never clean. Any fixture having the present 
style of overflow is not a sanitary fixture. And I am 
satisfied that the coming fixture will have no such filthy 
overflow connections. 

THE BATHROOM AND ITS FINISH — THE DIFFERENT 
KINDS OF BATHTUBS USED — THEIR ADVANTAGES 
AND DISADVANTAGES FROM BOTH A MECHANICAL 
AND SANITARY STANDPOINT. 

There are two good reasons why the bathroom should 
be finished in the best possible way in preference to any 
other room in the house. First, because, as a rule, the 
bathroom is used more than any other room except the 
kitchen. Therefore it requires the best possible mate- 



226 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

rial to stand such wear and tear, and it is always econ- 
omy to have the best, even at a higher price, for pur- 
poses where hard usage or work is to be performed. 
The second reason is, that without a good finish, with 
the proper materials for such purposes, the bathroom 
cannot be kept in a good sanitary condition. And from 
the sanitary condition of the bathroom, whether it be 
finished plain or in an elaborate shape, we can judge the 
sanitary condition of the entire house, like the physician 
who can tell by symptoms the entire feelings of his 
patient. The sanitarian, or any person who pays atten- 
tion to the sanitary condition of the house, can also tell 
the nature of the people who occupy it. And where 
the bathroom is neglected you will scarcely ever find 
any part of such a house in a proper sanitary condition. 

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PROPER BATHROOM. 

The bathroom should be well lighted, that is with 
windows, so that the sunlight could come in. It should 
be heated to a much higher temperature than any other 
room in the house, and should also be thoroughly venti- 
lated. The walls, doors, and casings should be of such 
material or finished in such a way that would be proof 
against water and steam. There should be no sharp 
corners or square angles, as they hold dirt and are not 
easy to clean. The floors should never be covered with 
carpet, as it is a very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. 
Hard wood makes a good floor for a bathroom, also tile, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 227 

and even good oilcloth will do very well, and a few rugs 
may be used, as they can be removed and cleaned on 
short notice. Never paper the walls or ceilings of a 
bathroom under any circumstances, as it is not only a 
poor material to stand water and steam, but it is a most 
unsanitary thing for such places. The bathroom should 
be thoroughly ventilated without having to use the door 
which communicates with some other part of the house 
for that purpose. A bathroom is never properly venti- 
lated where it is necessary to open the door leading to 
it, in order to get pure air in, or to expel foul air from 
it. Where such is the case, we simply remove the bad 
air from the bathroom to some other or all parts of 
the house. 

WHAT KIND OF BATHTUB TO USE. 

The next thing to consider is the kind of tub ; and 
this is not an easy matter, when we are told of the many 
different kinds and finishes of bathtubs in the market. 
But before naming the various kinds of bathtubs, I 
would recommend that, whatever kind is selected, it 
have as little woodwork as possible about it. There 
are a great many bathtubs to-day in the market. Some 
are good and some are bad. One of the first we had 
was a wooden box lined with sheet lead. A few 
are still in existence in some of the older houses. Sheet 
lead does very well in regard to its lasting qualities, but 
could never be thoroughly cleaned, and therefore is not 



228 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



considered a sanitary article for this purpose. The next 
bathtub we find making its way in the market was the 
wooden box Hned with zinc. This looked a little more 
clean and bright when new and also cost less, but its 
lasting qualities were not good. It was also hard to 
keep it looking clean, consequently it has almost disap- 
peared, and is used now only in the cheapest kind of 
tenement-houses. 




Fig. 78. — The Copper-lined Bathtub. 



Then came the wooden box lined with sheet copper. 
This tub has held its own very well for a long time, as 
it had two advantages over the lead and zinc tubs by 
being a more durable metal, and could be kept looking 
clean for a long time ; and yet this tub is almost 
lost sight of to-day. The disadvantages of the copper- 
lined tub are that the copper being soft is easily pene- 
trated and made to leak by allowing anything hard to 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



229 







230 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

fall into the tub, also when the tinning is worn off it 
looks very bad, and in that state cannot be kept per- 
fectly clean. 

OTHER KINDS OF BATHTUBS. 

We have then the cast-iron tub in many finishes. 
First, plain cast iron painted ; this tub is strong enough 
to stand forever, but just as soon as the paint is worn 
off from the inside it becomes rusty and unsanitary, and 
cannot be kept clean. Then we have other cast-iron 
tubs galvanized ; this is done for the purpose of making 
them a more sanitary article and to prevent rusting ; but 
this coating soon wears off and this soon appears the 
same as the other, and also, being very rough, holds dirt, 
and, on the whole, makes it very little better than the 
cast-iron painted tub, while it costs a great deal more. 
In order to still use cast iron and overcome the objection 
already mentioned, we find the cast-iron enameled bath- 
tub. 

This is a great improvement on the other finishes, 
and is a good sanitary article when it is smooth and 
perfect ; but this is hard to get. This finish will not 
stand hard usage, as the enamel coating cracks easily 
when struck by any hard substance, and when once 
started soon peals off and then becomes not only a bad- 
looking sight, but unsanitary. Another style of bath- 
tub that is having quite a large sale at the present time 
is shown in Fig. 80. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



231 



This tub is formed out of sheet steel, and has an 
inner Hning of sheet copper; the lining is about the 
same as that used in the wooden copper-lined tubs. 
This steel-clad bathtub makes a very good article, and 
has some good points. It is light and easy to handle. 
It is an open fixture ; that is, it requires no casing, as 
it is finished just as soon as the pipe connections are 




Fig. Zo.— The Steel-clad Tub. 

made. This tub is provided with cast iron legs and 
hard wood cap of the different finishes. 



THE ALT-COPPER BATHTUB. 

Following close on the heels of the steel-clad tub 
comes a bathtub made entirely from one piece of sheet 
copper, having no outside shell, and is finished in the 
same style as shown in Fig. 80 ; having also neat iron 
supports and hard wood cap. The all-copper bathtub 
is also meeting with great success. 



232 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



In Fig. 8 1 is shown the crockery bathtub. This is a 
most sanitary article in every respect, as it requires no 
woodwork in or about it ; and as this tub is made 
entirely of one piece, there is no chance for dirt to 
lodge in any part of it. Besides this tub will last a life- 
time ; once properly set there will be no further ex- 
pense for repairs. The crockery bathtub is not without 




Fig. 8i. — The Crockery Bathtub. 

some fault or disadvantage ; it is very heavy to handle. 
It is no easy matter to carry a tub of this kind up one 
or two flights of stairs and deliver it safely to where it 
is to be set. It requires the greatest of care in handling. 
In using the crockery tub it has another bad point in 
being very cold to the touch until it has become en- 
tirely warm from the hot water. One of the latest bath- 
tubs is made from the new metal, aluminum. It is very 
light in weight ; admits of a very high polish ; is not 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



233 



affected by the atmosphere. It is very strong ; will 
stand hard usage. It makes a beautiful finish, and is in 
every way, as far as we can see, a perfectly sanitary 
article, but it is yet very high in price and can only be 
bought by the rich. 




Fig. 2>2.— Tke Tile Bathtub, 



In Fig. 82 is shown one of the most modern bath- 
rooms. And as will be noticed, the tub in this room is 
not only cased up with glazed and decorated tile, but it 
is also lined on the inside with glazed tile of different 
shades. One of the last bathrooms fitted up by the 
author was an exact duplicate of that shown in Fig. 82. 



234 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 




^ 






SANITARY PLUMBING 235 

This is a style of bathroom that none but the rich can 
enjoy. It was constructed for the Rev. N. J. McMan- 
ness in his beautiful residence at St. Mary's Place, 
Scranton, Pa., where I hope he is still enjoying its 
magnificence. 

The bathroom of the modern house is perhaps the 
most costly room in the house, as the people of to-day 
who have both taste and means are spending large sums 
of money in not only securing the most perfect sanitary 
fixtures for the bathroom, but they are displaying the 
highest degree of art in everything pertainmg to the 
room. In Fig. 83 is shown a bathroom which might be 
considered quite complete in regard to style and quality 
of the fixtures. All the fixtures as shown are open 
work ; a roll-rimmed porcelain lined bathtub of the 
latest pattern, decorated and with carved brass feet, and 
also screen shower attachment ; a foottub of the same 
material and finish as the bathtub ; a syphon closet of a 
late and neat pattern ; an oval decorated washbasin set 
in white Italian marble, with brass nickel-plated legs 
and brackets as supports ; also brass nickel-plated supply 
and waste fixtures of tasty designs. A glance at the 
elaborate modern bathroom might cause some people to 
think that such was extravagance and a waste of money. 
I do not believe there is any extravagance in it ; as a 
rule, anything that is finished in a tasty style will be kept 
more clean and will be handled with much greater care 
than a thing for the same purpose but of a plain finish. 



236 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

A GENERAL TALK ON THE DIFFERENT STYLE WATER 
CLOSETS FOR HOUSE USE. 

In the matter of water closets for house use, I wish to 
address this article to the householder and the architect, 
as well as to the plumber, and will waste no time in 
coming to the point. 

There are many makes and principles of water closets, 
but the best placed on the market to this date is the all 
earthenware syphon closet. That is, this closet is made 
in one single piece of crockery, so that there is no metal 
to rust or joints to leak about it, and it is flushed from 
a copper-lined tank, which is placed five or six feet 
above it. By the syphon principle, every part of the 
bowl is washed more thoroughly than can be done by 
any other make. The soil is carried away more quickly, 
and at every operation it not only cleanses itself, but 
flushes out the entire soil pipe from the point of the 
closet to the main sewer. This is the true principle for 
any kind of sanitary fixture to work upon in the dis- 
charging of its waste water. Water closets on the 
syphon principle are now made by nearly all the manu- 
facturers of plumbing fixtures. Some claim to have ad- 
vantages over others, but you cannot go far astray if the 
closet you select is of good earthenware, warranted not 
to craze, and operates on the syphon principle. Re- 
member that when we speak of a syphon closet we 
mean that the water in the bowl and trap form a suction 



SANITARY PLUMBING 237 

and draws the entire contents of the bowl down into 
the soil pipe with a strong suction, which is caused by 
filling the outlet of the closet entirely full of water. 
There are closet tanks that work on the syphon prin- 
ciple, and often connected to the closet bowls of some 
other make, but the bowl should also operate on the 
syphon principle. 

There are also other good closets as well as the syphon 
closet. The washout closet was, perhaps, the best sani- 
tary water closet before there was a good syphon closet 
produced, and they are also made by nearly all manu- 
facturers of sanitary fixtures. This closet is also made 
in all earthenware, having the bowl and trap combined 
in one single piece. Either the syphon or washout 
closet would be almost perfect if they were set up and 
connected as they are intended to be, and with a good 
local vent connected to a hot flue. The local vent is 
the best possible thing that we could attach to a water 
closet, but, like all other arrangements, it must be made 
in such a way so that it will operate at all times and 
during every condition of the atmosphere. The local 
vent is a pipe connected to the bowl of the closet, not 
for the purpose of carrying away sewer gas or any air 
from the sewer, but for the purpose of taking away 
the local air from the bowl of the closet in the room 
where it may be located, so that no foul smell even 
while being used will pass from the closet to the room. 



238 LAWLER S AMERICAN 

CONNECTING THE LOCAL VENT. 

In order to make this local vent work satisfactorily at 
all times it will be necessary to arrange the pipes, so that 
there would always be a suction in the pipe drawing 
from the point which is connected with the closet bowl. 
This pipe can never be connected with the main ven- 
tilating shaft of the soil pipe, but must escape from the 
house by some other channel ; and as the humidity of 
the atmosphere varies at times, in wet w^eather being 
quite heavy, cold air will not always ascend through a 
pipe. Therefore, in order to cause this local current of 
air to pass up and out of the house from the closet 
bowl, it will be necessary to provide some artificial 
heat for this purpose. And where it is possible to con- 
nect to a chimney flue that is always warm when the 
house is occupied, we can without any additional ex- 
pense accomplish the desired result ; and where we have 
no warm chimney to which we might connect this local 
vent pipe, we place in the ventilating pipe a small gas 
jet, which burns and makes heat enough in the pipe to 
cause the current of air to ascend through the pipe from 
the closet bowl and out through the roof. 

NO EXCUSE FOR IMPERFECT WORK. 

So that when people can afford to pay the price they 
can have perfection in the sanitary arrangement of their 
homes. There are also water closets that should not be 



SANITARY PLUMBING 239 

allowed in any house, and it would be well for people to 
know what kind they are. The old style pan closet is 
nothing better than a cesspool, and I am satisfied that 
it has been the cause of many deaths of persons who 
lived in houses fitted with this make of closet. It is 
easy for any person to tell a pan closet from some other 
make. It is called pan closet because it has a small 
copper pan-shaped arrangement, which is intended to 
hold water at the bottom of the closet bowl, and is 
operated by being attached to a lever and handle at the 
side of the seat, which operation also opens and closes 
the flow of water to wash the bowl. There are so many 
objections to this closet that I do not consider it worth 
any more space in this article. The " hopper " is also 
a closet that is not fit for any house. It is a funnel- 
shaped arrangement, wide enough on top for a seat and 
tapering to four inches at the bottom, and screwed to 
the floor without any other appliance to it, except an 
inlet on the side of the top rim for a water-pipe connec- 
tion. As a general thing, this hopper cannot be washed 
clean by the flow of water through the pipes ; besides, 
whatever soil might remain in the trap below the 
floor or hopper is directly open to the room. At the 
same time a good flushing rim earthenware hopper 
closet, supplied from a tank, is very much better than 
the pan closet. 

The plunger closet is perhaps a little better than 
either the pan or hopper closet, but it is far from being 



240 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

a good sanitary closet. There are a great many styles 
of the plunger closet, and called by some fancy names, 
but they are still the same, scarcely any difference in 
them, and without knowing the base principle upon 
which they work, it is quite easy for those not in the 
business to be deceived. The plunger closet discharges 
from the side of the bowl, and the water is held in the 
bowl by a large plug or plunger which fits the outlet ; 
and to discharge the contents of the bowl the plunger 
is simply pulled up the same as taking out the stopper 
from a washbasin. This closet is sometimes supplied 
from a direct valve in it or from a tank overhead, but 
the great trouble with it comes from the closet itself, no 
matter what way its gets its supply. The plunger closet 
cannot be kept perfectly clean, and therefore there is 
always more or less bad smell from it. Besides, it be- 
comes a nuisance with the water running when not in 
use. The bottom of the plunger soon gets dirty, and 
will allow the water to leak away from the bowl. Re- 
member that if you expect a first-class sanitary closet in 
your house you will be disappointed if what you pur- 
chase is one of the following — the plunger, the pan, or 
the hopper closet. 

HOW TO MAKE A PRACTICAL OUTSIDE WATER CLOSET 
AND CONNECT IT TO THE SEWER. 

In rural districts a system of outside closets, such as 
shown in Fig. 84, will be found to be quite practicable, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



241 



and can be used in many cases to advantage, especially 
in clayey ground, where the outside vault is used. In 
such places there is no soakage in the earth, and with- 



c/q' 



00 
4^ 




out a drain to carry off the water, it would in a very 
short time fill the vault and overflow the surface. 
To connect the outside vault to a sewer or drain, as 



242 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

shown, the results will be satisfactory. In constructing 
such an arrangement it is necessary to make the vault 
water-tight, so that it will hold water. It is necessary 
to have a good amount of water standing on the bottom 
at all times in order to dissolve all paper and soil which 
go into it ; and by connecting pipes to the eaves of 
the roof, as shown, the vault will receive water when it 
rains, and in this way keep the matter in the vault dis- 
solved, so that when it rises above the outlet or sewer 
connection it will flow down to the sewer. In such a 
construction, as shown, the rainwater pipes answer also 
to ventilate the vault and carry any odors rising from the 
vault to a high point. The bend on the outlet pipe from 
the vault also serves as a trap, and will prevent sewer gas 
from entering the vault. It is a good plan in dry 
weather to flush out this vault by the use of a hose, or 
at any time should it become dry. 

In Fig. 85 is shown one style of water closet that can 
be made practicable to operate with water and be located 
in cold places where it is not practicable to have heat 
from any source. Very often such a closet is used in 
barns, stables, areaways, shops, factories, and dozens of 
other places where a more sanitary style of closet could 
not be used. The great point necessary in arranging 
an outside closet, such as shown in Fig. 85, is to have 
the pipes, traps, and valves which hold water at all 
times protected from the frost ; and pipes that convey 
water through them in such an arrangement to be so 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



243 




Fig. 85. ^ The Outside Frost-Proof Hopper Closet, 



2M LAWLER's AMERICAN 

constructed that they will drain themselves dry as soon 
as possible after being used. As a rule, such a hopper 
closet is made to work automatically — that is, when the 
seat receives the weight of a person, the pressure is 
exerted on a rod which communicates with the valve 
located in a box low down, as shown. This action turns 
on the water, and it passes up through the supply pipe 
which is connected to the bowl of the closet, thus flush- 
ing the closet until the seat is relieved of its weight, 
when the balance weight on the valve shuts off the 
water again, and at the same time opening a small waste 
hole in the valve which is connected to the trap, as 
shown, through which all the water in the upright supply 
pipe to the closet is discharged, thus leaving the upright 
pipe dry and safe against frost until used again. There 
are a great many special valves for such an outside 
hopper closet in the market, but the one shown in Fig. 
85 is one of the best the author has had the pleasure of 
examining. It is sold by James B. Clow & Sons, 
Chicago, 111. 

Still another style of outside closet which I consider 
worthy of special mention, and which will be of interest 
to the plumber, is shown in Fig. 86. 

We show herewith the Zero S. and W. after flush 
closet, for use only in extremely cold places. It requires 
no vault to put the trap or valve in, these being buried 
in the ground below the frost line. The valve can be 
repaired without digging up. The tank is galvanized 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



245 



iron, tested to 200 pounds pressure, and it makes no 
difference at what height from the seat the tank is 




Fig. 2>6.— Tke Zero S. and W. After Flush Closet. 



placed. This is manufactured by the Zero Valve Com- 
pany, 304 Seneca Street, Buffalo, N. Y. 



246 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

THE BEST AND MOST SANITARY WATER CLOSETS TO 
THE PRESENT DATE. 

It is a very important matter to know what kind of 
water closet is the best and most sanitary device for 
house use, and there is no person who can be a better 
judge of this than the practical plumber, who has had 
experience with every conceivable arrangement intended 
for such purpose that has found its way into the market 
for the last twentyfive years. 

I do not hesitate to state that of all the filthy and 
unsanitary arrangements ever placed in a house the 
pan closet is the worst of them all ; and, as stated in 
another part of this book, it should not be allowed in- 
side of any house, no matter how many ventilating 
pipes may be attached to it. The pan closet is not a 
small cesspool, but a good large one, directly open most 
of the time to the atmosphere of the room in which it may 
be placed. I do not think enough about the pan closet 
to show a cut of it in this book, and, besides, if shown 
here its meaning might be misconstrued. 

We show in Fig. 87 a sectional view of a plunger 
water closet for the purpose of showing its bad points — 
its unsanitary- principle. This closet is also spoken of 
elsewhere in this book, and, as stated before, the plunger 
closet is perhaps a step in advance of the pan closet 
from a sanitary point of view, but not a great deal. 
There are two great objections to this style of closet ; 
the first is, that to hold the water up to a proper height 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



247 



in the bowl a large plug must be depended upon ; and as 
all paper and soil from the bowl must pass around the 
plunger or plug, particles cling to the plug and make it 
rest uneven on its seat, so that in a very short time it 
fails to hold the water in the bowl, and the result is 
that the valve starts and stops often both day and 




Fig. 87. — The Plunger Closet. 



night, whether it is used by any person or not, and by 
this action becomes a perfect nuisance. The second 
objection to the plunger closet is in the plunger chamber, 
which, as a rule, must be quite large to hold the float 
which operates the valve. This chamber becomes foul 
with soil from the bowl, and it cannot be kept clean, 



248 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 



therefore it is a great nuisance from a sanitary point of 
view. As will be noticed in Fig. 87, the trap is also 
part of the closet, which is entirely above the floor. 
This trap has never a good, full-sized opening, but is 
flattened and very much contracted in order to keep 
down the height of the closet. 




Fig. 88. — The Plunger Closet with Straight Outlet. 

In Fig. 88 is shown the same closet with straight 
outlet, which is the same in every respect as Pig. 87, 
except that in this case a trap must be furnished, which 
is placed under the floor. The *' plunger closet " is con- 
nected directly to the service pipe, and also connected 
to overhead tanks ; this makes very little difference, as 
it does not in any way change or improve its action. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



249 



THE WASHOUT CLOSET. 
The " washout closet " is far from being an entirely- 
sanitary fixture. It might be considered an improve- 
ment over the plunger style of closet, yet its principle 
is not correct, and besides its name is wrong, because it 
does not wash out. The great objection to the wash- 
out closet is, that its bowl becomes foul in a very short 

Supply 
Connection. 

^ Local Vent 



Trap Vent. 




Fig. 89. — The Washout Closet in Section. 

time, and without having attached to it a good local 
vent the bad odors from the bowl would be unbearable. 
In the bowl of the " washout closet '' there is too much 
dry surface, and therefore the soil easily clings to it and 
cannot be properly washed off with the flow of water as 
it falls from the tank. The appearance of the inside of 
this closet is also very bad, especially the style of wash- 
out with the back outlet. 



250 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

In Fig. 89 we show a sectional view of the washout 
closet, and it must be remembered that there is a large 
number of washout closets, each one having some little 
change in shape or size ; also plain and decorated, em- 
bossed, and so on, and still they are all on the general 
plan of that shown in Fig. 89. 

The best make of this style closet is that which is 
made in one single piece of good crockery, as shown in 
Fig. 89. As will be noticed, the trap is also formed in 
the closet, and therefore requires no other trap below 
the floor. The upper part of the trap is provided with 
a vent opening, as marked " trap vent " ; this vent is 
connected with what is called the back- vent line of pipe, 
which will be shown in another place. The back-vent 
line of pipe is carried up above all waste fixtures and 
then, if convenient, may be connected to the line of soil 
pipe or continued up and out through the roof. This 
vent opening on top of trap is intended to carry off any 
sewer gas that might accumulate at the high point of 
the trap ; and it is also for the purpose of preventing the 
water from being syphoned out of the trap, by allowing 
air to pass into that part of the connection in place of 
having to come through the water in the trap, which 
might carry some of the water with it, and in this way 
leave too little water in the trap to form a seal against 
sewer gas. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 251 



THE LOCAL VENT. 

Referring to Fig. 89, the next opening in the bowl 
above the trap vent is the connection for a local vent. 
From this connection is carried a pipe to some heated 
flue in order to carry off as much as possible the foul 
odors arising from the bowl. And this is one of the 
most important things that could be done with any 
style of closet. It must be remembered that this local 
vent will be of no use unless it is connected to a heated 
flue. As stated in another part of this book, if we can- 
not use the kitchen chimney, we must heat a flue by 
gas or some other means in order to cause the air to 
rise in the pipes. Another very important thing in con- 
nection with this local vent is, to be sure and never 
connect it to the soil ventilating pipe, as that would 
allow the gas to pass into the house. 

Referring again to Fig. 89, we will notice the upper 
outlet, which is the supply connection to connect with 
the tank. In the centre of the bowl at the bottom, as 
will be noticed, is a depression which holds a small 
amount of water; this is to keep the bottom wet. But 
this water often evaporates, and leaves that part of the 
bowl dry, and when used under such circumstances the 
result can easily be seen. 

Fig. 90 represents the washout closet with front out- 
let. As the discharge opening of this closet is never 
clean, its filthy appearance is somewhat hid from view 



252 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

by having it in front, as shown in style Fig. 90. But 
this does not improve its sanitary condition ; in fact, 
I think from a sanitary point of view the back outlet 
style. Fig. 91, is the better, for the reason that the 
unclean parts are so exposed to view that they will 
receive more attention, and will be cleaned more often 
than the parts that are not so exposed to view. 



Fig. 90. — The Washout Closet with Front Outlet. 

One rather peculiar thing in how mechanical arrange- 
ments and hydraulic principles work to advantage for 
one purpose, and the same thing a great disadvantage 
and must be avoided as much as possible in another, 
brings to my mind the principle of syphonage. One of 
the great problems which we have to continually figure 
on is to prevent traps under a large number of plumb- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 253 

ing fixtures from syphoning out, and this is one of the 
great dangers, and therefore great care must be taken 
in constructing the work to properly ventilate the traps 
of such fixtures. And yet this very same principle of 
syphoning is taken advantage of in another way, and 
through it is produced the best and most sanitary water 



Fig. 91. — The Washout Closet with Back Outlet. 

closet up to* the present date, and is likely to hold first 
place for a long time to come. 

There are at the present time quite a large number of 
closets in the market that work on the syphon principle. 
Nearly every leading manufacturer of water closets has 
a special make of his own. The author has had consid- 
erable experience with many of them, and has found 
many to be quite satisfactory. In Fig. 92 is shown a 
style of the syphon closet in section ; this is named 



254 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



" The Improved Sypho," and is made by McCambridge 
& Co., Philadelphia, Pa. This is a strictly high class 
closet, and works to the greatest perfection. 

The " Improved Sypho " water closet is an all porce- 
lain syphoning closet, the bowl of which contains a suf- 




Fig. 92. — T^e Sypho7i Closet. 

ficient quantity of water when at rest to form a seal or 
trap of unusual depth, which cannot be broken by 
syphonic action, thus rendering ''back airing" unneces- 
sary, and forming an effectual barrier against the passage 
of sewer air. 

The *' Sypho" contains neither weir nor lower 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



265 



trap, and its action is prompt, strong, and almost noise- 
less. 

Its operation is simple, and will be readily understood 
by consulting the accompanying cuts and description. 
Upon opening the valve in tank water flows simultane- 




Fig. 93- 

ously to the bowl and through the coil A to port B in 
the dome of syphon, Fig. 93 ; the water which passes 
through the port B quickly expels the air from the long 
limb of the syphon, creating a powerful syphonic action, 
withdrawing the contents of bowl, which are driven to- 



256 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

ward and into the neck or outlet by the force of water 
from the flushing rim. After the discharge ceases a 
diminished flow of water from the tank through the 
flushing rim refills the bowl. In no case is it possible 
for the " Sypho " to be left without a seal after use. 

The small trapped waterway shown in section, Fig. 92, 
will be better understood by first noting its course, as 
indicated in Fig. 93, where it will be seen to pass from 
the point where the flush pipe attaches, down one side 
of the closet, thence between the limbs, as indicated by 
the dotted lines, to the opposite side, and extending 
upward terminates in the port B, which discharges into 
the long limb of syphon. The water seal or trap in coil 
A is even greater than that in the closet bowl, thereby 
rendering it entirely secure. We desire to call particular 
attention to the fact that as the coil A must be full of 
water before the refill will run to the bowl, a bowl seal 
always indicates a seal in coil A. 

In Fig. 94 we show the " Sypho " closet set up com- 
plete with hardwood, copper-lined tank, and having the 
supply pipe to the tank concealed in the partition. 

SPECIAL ADVICE TO THE PLUMBER. 

I desire to call the plumber's special attention to one 
or two things in regard as to how he can keep posted on 
the improvements that are constantly going on in the 
way of improved methods of doing difl"erent pieces 
of plumbing work, and also the many new and improved 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



257 




Fig. 94. 



258 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

fittings, machines, tools, and fixtures. If the plumber 
has ambition and desires to keep in the front rank with 
his fellow-craftsmen, he must not stop after he has 
served his five or six years as an apprentice and think 
that there is no necessity of knowing anything more, or 
that there is no more to learn. 

But he at this point should now prepare to begin the 
real work of learning to properly know his trade ; and 
now, more than ever, the plumber should read and study 
all the best works he can find pertaining to this trade. 
With a practical experience of about five years he will 
be able to understand the proper meaning of what he 
may see and read in such books and trade journals. I 
would advise (as I have done on other occasions) the 
mechanic to subscribe for and carefully read the different 
trade journals, analyze every article, and not drop it 
until he thoroughly understands its meaning, and also 
to carefully look over the advertisements in such papers. 
There is often something very interesting and instructive 
even in an advertisement. And it makes no difference 
whether the mechanic is in business for himself, or 
simply working for a day's wages, I would say to him, 
write to all the different manufacturers of plumbing 
materials, tools, machines, and fixtures of every descrip- 
tion which in any way belong to the trade in which he 
is engaged for their latest catalogues, and carefully look 
and read them over. This is where the plumber will get 
some good points. He will know what there is in the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



259 



market to meet the different situations and arrangements 
of his work. A library of catalogues is not a bad one, 
and, in fact, it is what every mechanic should have in 
his house. Besides, there is no excuse for not having 
them, for the reason that they cost nothing. 

SOIL AND WASTE PIPES— SOIL-PIPE VENTILATION— 
THE FRESH-AIR INLET— THE HOUSE TRAP AND 
RAINWATER CONNECTION. 

Every plumber should make himself acquainted with 





Fig- 95. 

the many different makes and shapes of soil pipe and 
fittings, and to accomplish this there is no better way 
than to have all the latest and best catalogues of such 
goods. 

In Fig. 9=; are shown two lengths of soil pipe. One is 
the regular pattern, having one hub only, and the other 
shows a length of double-hub pipe. This, of course, 
will be noticed by the reader without being told. Still, 
my object in showing these lengths of soil pipe is to 
bring to the mind of the plumber the fact that there is 



260 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

some economy in certain places by the use of the double- 
hub pipe, especially where the/e are many shorj: pieces 
used, while in such places there would be great waste 
with the single-hub pipe. It is a good plan for the 
plumber in business to keep at least a small quantity of 
double-hub soil pipe on hand. 

In Fig. 96 are shown a few of the leading soil-pipe 
fittings. There are so many different kinds of soil-pipe 
fittings that we could not give space to them here, and 
what are shown are for the purpose of calling the plumber's 
attention to the fact that it is possible to find in the 
market fittings of this kind to meet any situation or 
combination of pipe system, so that there should be no 
excuse for using fittings which do not exactly answer 
the purpose. In the first place, we have four bends, each 
having a different angle — the quarter bend, the sixth 
bend, the eighth bend, and the sixteenth bend — there- 
fore we should surely get the desired angle. Besides, 
we have these same angle bends of different lengths. 
Then we have the " Sanitary T " branch, which is a 
comparatively new fitting, and which takes the place of 
a Y branch, and at the same time gives us the outlet 
in a horizontal position. 

Then, again, we have the double T Y, which comes in 
good for double houses where one line of soil pipe 
answers for the two lines of water closets. The back 
air-pipe vent branch is also a new fitting, and can be 
used to great advantage. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



261 



Sisth Bepds. 



Eighth Bends. 



Sixteenth Bends* 






Doable T Y 





Vent Branch, for Back-Air Pipe^ 



m^-m 





Fig. 96. 



Ccpyrlgbud bj J. 1. Mom. 



262 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



SOIL PIPE SHOULD BE WELL SUPPORTED. 
In running lines of soil pipe, whether they stand in 




Fig. 97. 

vertical positions or carried in horizontal lines, they 
should in all cases be laid on solid foundations or 
supports. Never depend on the lead-calked joint to 



SANITARY PLUMBING 2G3 

hold up a line of soil pipe or any weight. The lead 
joint will have all it can do to keep the soil or gas from 
escaping. 

In Fig. 97 is shown a vertical line of soil pipe fastened 
to a brick wall, with heavy wrought-iron bands which 
clasp the pipe all around. In this way the pipe cannot 



move in any direction, and at the same time the band 
does not press with great force on the outside of the 
pipe, which might have a tendency of cracking it if 
pressed too tight. 

Fig. 98 shows a section of soil pipe hanging in a 
horizontal position, and also properly supported on 
wrought-iron hangers. In running lines of soil pipe it 
is the best plan to set the joints all ready for calking in 



264 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

their places, so that they will rest on the fixed supports 
which are intended to hold them. In this way there 
will be no sagging or loosening of the joints after they 
have been calked. 

One special point in the running of soil-pipe lines 
(especially of vertical) is to have them as straight as 
possible from the lowest fixture to the roof. In Fig. 99 
is shown a vertical line of soil pipe with three branches, 
such as might be taken off for three water closets on 
three different floors. The same figure also shows three 
traps connected to the soil pipe ; and also is shown a 
small pipe connected to the top bend of each trap, and 
carried up and out through the roof. This is the back- 
air vent pipe, and this is the general principle that 
should be carried out in all soil-pipe connections with 
fixtures, whether they are water closets or any other 
plumbing fixtures. 

CALKING SOIL-PIPE JOINTS. 

It is not only a very important matter to have all 
soil-pipe joints made in the best possible manner, but it 
pays even the plumber to do so, for the reason that 
when these joints are well and properly made they will 
be at that time finished, and will not require any further 
attention to make them tight. Besides, the only time 
that these soil-pipe joints can be properly made is when 
the work is being put up or the construction of the 
work. To properly calk soil-pipe joints we must have 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



265 




Fig. 99. 



266 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

the proper materials to do the work with, and any kind 
will not answer. In the first place, the plumber should 
not pack the joints with paper, or pieces of old rags, and 
then pour in his lead. 

This is often done by plumbers who are careless, and 
sometimes to save the price of a few pounds of oakum. 
But it is a great mistake on the part of the plumber 
who does such work. First, carefully place the joints 
to be calked close together — that is, put them up and 
stay them solid, as described in another place — then 
pack the joints with the best picked oakum. In packing 
the oakum around the hub, the first layer must be 
twisted into a small rope, so that it will drive in with 
ease and not pass through to the inside of the end of 
the hub in places where the end of the pipe does not 
perfectly fit. In a 4-inch pipe the packing should be 
about one inch thick, and calked in perfectly tight, so 
that even this packing would hold water. 

Just before the packing is driven tight into the hub 
the plumber should see that the space all around the 
hub is the same, so that the lead will flow evenly and be 
the same thickness at all points. I might state that 
this is a very important point to be considered, for the 
reason that where the lead is thicker on one side than 
another it cannot be calked properly. And, again, the 
expansion and contraction of both the pipe and the lead 
work the joint loose in a much shorter time than if the 
joint is perfectly even all around. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 267 

THE KIND OF LEAD TO USE FOR CALKING. 
It must be remembered that lead of any kind will not 
do to calk soil pipe with. No greater mistake could be 
made than to use anything for this purpose but the best 
kind of clean soft lead. In calking in the lead after it 
has been poured, there must be great care exercised, as 
the pipe, if of the standard grade, is easily cracked, and 
will not stand much pressure due to the calking chisel 
and hammer. The plumber must be careful about such 
lead, and not use old pieces of lead pipe for this purpose 
with some solder joints. Solder makes the lead hard, 
and when hard it cannot be well calked into the hub. 
Besides, if hard, it will crack the hub before it is per- 
fectly tight. 

BACK-AIR VENTS MUST NOT BE SAGGED. 
Fig. loo is placed here for the purpose of illustrating 
one special point in regard to the back-air vent pipe. It 
often happens that we have close places and very short 
connections for this pipe between the trap and the main 
vent pipe; and, again, it sometimes happens that the 
back-air vent connection is left out too low down in the 
main ventilating pipe. The result often leaves a sag in 
the branch, as shown in the sketch above the trap, and 
the consequence will be that the sag will fill with water, 
and thus render such vent connection useless. I desire to 
state that although water is not intended to run up from 
the trap through the vent connection, and may never do 



268 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 




^3 



Fzg. 100. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



269 



so, still the wet air passing up this connection condenses 
enough water in a very short time to fill a small de- 
pression, as shown. Again, it sometimes happens 
that in cases of the stoppage of the waste pipe this 
branch may be partly filled by water backing up. There- 
fore, in no case should there be a sag in the back-air 




Fig. loi. 
vent pipe, but instead it should have a good elevation 
from the trap to the main line with which it connects. 

CONNECTING LEAD BENDS AND TRAPS TO CAST-IRON 
SOIL PIPE. 
To properly connect lead waste pipes to cast-iron soil 
pipe there is nothing better than the brass ferrule, as 



270 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



shown in Fig. lOi. This is made heavy enough to stand 
calking into the hub, and being brass it can and should 
in all cases be wiped to the lead connection. Cup joints 
for this purpose should never be used or allowed. The 




Fig. I02. 



brass ferrule is also made in angle shapes, such as shown 
in Fig. 102. 

This makes it very convenient for many places in not 
having to form a bend in the lead pipe. A very good 
ferrule for this purpose is shown in Fig. 103, and can be 
used to much advantage in many places. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



271 







30 

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272 LAWLER*S AMERICAN 

THE SOIL PIPE IX PLACE, FROM TRE SEWER IN THE 
STREET TO THE ROOF OF THE HOUSE. 

In Fig. 104 is shown a plan of the soil pipe in place, 
from the sewer in the street to the roof of the house. 
As stated before, one very nice point in running soil or 
drain pipes is to get them in perfect line and also a 
uniform grade. As will be noticed by referring to Fig. 
104, just inside of the building wall is located the house 
trap. It is also located so that it can be got at with 
ease in case of having to clean it. 

The style of trap shown is a running trap, having on 
its upper part two outlets extending upward. One of 
the outlets is used for the purpose of cleaning out the 
trap in case of stoppage, and is provided with a brass 
screw plug which is calked into the iron ; the other out- 
let is the fresh-air connection, which has attached to it 
a section of pipe extending out through the building 
wall and above the surface of the ground. It is not 
always possible to get a good place for this fresh-air 
ventilating connection, and its appearance is not good in 
a front yard, or in fact in any exposed place. This con- 
nection, as shown in Fig. 104, is placed under the front 
steps of the house ; and it will be noticed that this out- 
let has a hood placed over it, which hood is also connected 
to a line of pipe which returns again into the building 
and extends up to and out through the roof. This 
might be called ventilating the fresh-air inlet. It often 



SANITARY TLUMBING 



2Y3 



happens that when large quantities of water are dis- 
charged from some upper floor through the soil pipe it 
forces foul air out through the fresh-air inlet connection, 
and if this connection is located too close to the house 
its bad effects will be noticed. But being ventilated as 
shown, the pipe located in the building will be warm to 
some extent, and also quite high, and will cause a draft 




Fig. 105. 



upward in it, and catch the foul odors as they are 
forced out, and at the sam'e time in no way obstruct the 
fresh air from passing into the soil pipe. The centre 
line of pipe in the drawing represents the soil pipe with 
its outlets, having double Y T's, and all ready to go on 
with the closet connections. The vertical line of pipe 
on the righthand side of the drawing is the rainwater 



2'74: LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

connection, and connects with the roof, having a wire 
strainer on top. 

TESTING SOIL AND WASTE PIPES. 

After the soil pipe has been completed from the house 
trap in the cellar to the roof, and before any connections 
have been made, its outlets must be tested, and there is 
no better or safer way of testing soil pipes than by 
water pressure. All openings are closed by adjustable 
pipe stoppers for the purpose. There are many styles 
and principles of these devices in the market. I know 
of none more practical than the " Sexton Pipe Closer," 
shown in Fig. 105. They are made to fit all kinds and 
sizes of pipe openings, and can be easily and quickly 
adjusted. These stoppers are manufactured and for sale 
by the inventor himself, Mr. Michael Sexton, 11 12 Third 
Avenue, New York City, who is also a practical plumber 
of much ability. 

The soil pipes, after having the openings closed, are 
filled with water to the roof. This will prove whether 
there is any defect in them or not in very quick order. 
The soil pipes are made to stand and hold this pressure 
of water before they, will be considered safe or satisfac- 
tory for the work. There are other methods of testing 
soil pipe, such as the " peppermint test ' and the 
"smoke test." They amount to nothing, and should 
not be considered on good work. 

In Fig. 106 is shown a complete job of drainage, in 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



275 




Fig. 106.—A Complete Job of House Drainage. 



276 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

eluding the house trap, the fresh-air inlet, the soil pipe 
extending to the roof, the various fixtures trapped 
separately, and all back-vented in a proper manner. 

The dotted lines in the drawing represent the back-air 
vent pipe connected to the crown of all traps, and finally 
ending above the highest fixture into the naain soil pipe. 

THE KIND OF PIPE TO USE. 

For the back-air vent good wrought-iron pipe with 
threaded joints will answer, and in many cases can be 
used to better advantage than cast-iron hub pipe. In 
no case should sheet-iron pipe be used for this purpose. 
All such joints connecting with the top of each trap 
should be good wiped joints. No cup joints should be 
used on this pipe. 

A quite recent and most ingenious back-air vent fit- 
ting is shown in Figs. 107 and 108. It will be appre- 
ciated by sanitar>' plumbers and architects who under- 
stand their business as having much merit. This fitting 
is called the ^' Temple Vent Fitting," and is made by 
Oliver Schlemmer, No. 437 Linn Street, Cincinnati, O. 

THE CAUSE OF SYPHOXAGE IX TRAPS. 

Every plumber should know under what conditions a 
trap will syphon out. The seal of a trap is often broken 
also by evaporation. When traps are located in warm 
places and the fixtures to which they are attached not 
used much, it takes only a very few hours to evaporate 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



277 



enough of water out of such traps to lower its surface 
below the line of seal. There are many makes of 




traps cannot be syphoned out from practical operation 
enough to break their seals. But there is no trap 
made the water seal of which cannot be broken by or 



278 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

from evaporation ; and consequently the so-called non- 
syphon traps are not safe. I therefore recommend that 
every trap should be ventilated, no matter what princi- 
ple it may have ; for the reason that in case the water 
seal became broken in any way, there would be some 
chance for the gas coming from the sewer to pass up 
and out through the vent pipe, in place of coming direct 
into the room of the house. 

There are many ways of explaining how a trap under 
a fixture syphons out. And it appears to me that there 
can be no better way than to show what actually takes 
place, and for this purpose I have made sketches, 
shown in Figs. 109 and no. Referring to Fig. 109, is 
shown a washbasin in section, with the ordinary S trap 
properly connected to the basin and extending down to 
the floor. Part of the trap and the piece of waste pipe 
are shown also in section. The dotted lines in the sec- 
tion of waste pipe, and also in part of the trap, represent 
water at the time syphon occurs or while the syphon is 
actually taking place. The arrows shown in the cut 
pointing down to the outlet of the basin, and also in 
the bends of the trap, represent the air in motion mov- 
ing down into the waste pipe after the solid column of 
water as it falls away from the trap. To form a syphon 
in a trap it is only necessary to have a free outlet at the 
bottom of the waste pipe, and allow part of the upright 
waste pipe to fill solid with water. The weight of the 
solid column will move down, on the very same principle 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



279 




m 



Fig. 109. 



280 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

as a perfectly fitted piston in a pump cylinder, due to 
the weight of the piston. Now let us see what takes 
place as the solid column of water moves down the 
waste pipe. In the first place, as the water in a solid 
body that is filling the pipe moves down, it forces the 
air in front of it down also ; therefore where a trap is 
not back-vented it must get air from the fixture and 
down through the trap to fill up the space left vacant 
after all water has passed dowm, otherwise there would be 
a vacuum formed in the upper part of the waste pipe. 
The pressure of the atmosphere being as great on the 
mouth of the w^aste pipe at the top as w^ell as the bot- 
tom, there would be nothing to prevent it from passing 
in through the fixture, through the trap, and into the 
waste pipe ; thus bringing everything to a balance again 
just as soon as the solid column of water had reached 
the bottom of the pipe or had broken from a solid 
column, which it could do under some circumstances 
before it entirely reached the lowest part of the waste 
pipe. Where strong suctions are formed by this syphonic 
action, the current of air which passes in to fill the pipe 
is also made strong, and rushes in w^ith great force ; so 
much so that it not only rises up through the water 
seal in bubbles, but it carries with it a large amount of 
the trap's water. And I have often known this action 
to wipe out all the water from the trap and leave it per- 
fectly dry. In some cases where the syphonic action 
does not take all the w-ater from the trap, the small 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



281 




LAWLER S AMERICAN 

amount left falls back and settles to the bottom bend, 
where it belongs. But in such cases there will not be 
enough water left to fill the trap high enough to form a 
gas-tight seal. 

In Fig. no we show again the same washbasin, trap, 
and piece of waste pipe, with the trap in this case back- 
vented. For illustration we will consider that the water 
is in the act of forming a syphon, just as described in 
Fig. 109. In place of the waste pipe receiving the air 
which is necessary to fill it after the solid column of 
water has passed down through the basin, as in Fig. 109, 
the air passes in through the back-vent pipe, as indi- 
cated by the directions of the arrows, thus leaving the 
full amount of the water in the trap undisturbed. We 
can now see that the back-air vent pipe answers for two 
very important things : to prevent the water from being 
drawn from the trap, and also to allow sewer gas, which 
may rise to the crown of the trap, to escape to the atmos- 
phere above the roof of the house, and not accumulate 
in the waste pipe, which might form a pressure and 
even force itself through the water seal of the trap. 

In Fig. Ill is shown one of the first special bathtub 
traps made, and was patented by the author about 
twelve years ago. The special feature about the Lawler 
bathtub trap is that it can be connected close to the 
outlet of the bathtub, and can also be cleaned by re- 
moving the tube which conducts the water down from 
the fixture into the trap. This inner tube, having its 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



283 



mouth down in the water, forms the water seal. At the 
upper end of the dip tube is a screw-thread joint, and 
the strainer is webbed in such a way that it leaves an 
opening in the centre, the proper size and shape to 
receive -the end of any ordinary screw-driver, whereby it 
may be unscrewed with ease. This trap is also pro- 




Fig. 1 1 1 . — Lawlers Bathtub Trap. 

vided with a branch extending from its side near the 
bottom, which branch answers to receive and trap the 
overflow connections from the tub. 



TRAPS OF VARIOUS MAKES. 



As stated in other parts of this book, I believe in back- 
venting all traps, no matter what the principle of the 



284 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



trap may be, or what the manufacturers of such traps 
may claim for them. And yet we will have trouble to 
contend with even where traps are back-vented, and 
that is in the vent becoming closed at its mouth con- 
necting with the trap. This choking of the vent con- 
nection in the trap will be found to occur more in traps 
such as are connected to kitchen sinks, due to a large 
amount of grease in the waste water. 




Fig. 112. 

A most Ingenious trap made with the special object 
of overcoming the trouble mentioned above, and one 
which is worthy of special mention, is shown in Fig. 1 12. 

This trap is called the " Hartford " vent trap. As 
will be noticed, the vent connection has a tube extending 
down into the outlet leg of the trap for some distance. 
By this arrangement the vent outlet cannot be stopped 



SANITARY PLUMBING 285 

up by grease, or in fact anything else. Besides, there is 
less chance in such an arrangement for water to be 
drawn from the trap through syphonage. 

A very neat style of trap for open work is shown in 
Fig. 113. 



The special feature in this trap is its appearance and 
finish, and in order to take the outlet connection from a 
point directly under the inlet, as shown, it necessitates 
the use of an inner shell or cup to hold the water, which 
cannot be good from a sanitary point of view. 

Another special make of trap not much unlike the 
one just described is the '' Connelly " globe trap, shown 



286 LAWLER's AMERICAN 

in Fig. 114. These traps are also made of sheet metal 




for every position and kind of fixture ; they also look 
well, and are constructed on the non- syphon principle. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 287 

In Fig. 115 is shown the Bower glass-bottom trap in 




three different forms. The special points claimed for 
this trap are that it will not ^llow of water backing up 



288 



LAWLER S AMERICAN 



into the fixture, it having a rubber ball which floats in 
the water, and is held up against the dip tube of the 
trap, and forms a tight joint. Another point claimed 
for this style of trap is that it will not only prevent 
back-water entering the fixture, but it will prevent 
sewer gas from entering, which could be forced through 




Tig. ii6.— The Cudell Trap, 

the ordinary water seal of a trap without a rubber seal. 
Then, still another point, the bottom section is made of 
glass where desired, which makes it possible to look 
through and see that the trap is properly sealed with 
water, and also to know when it should be removed and 
cleaned. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 289 

Another style of trap having both a water and a 
mechanical valve seal is the '' Cudell " trap, shown in 
Fig. 1 16. This is a somewhat different combination 
from the *' Bower." In this trap the ball is metal, and 
is also intended to prevent back-water entering the 
fixture. 

The " Cudell " trap also forms a seal against sewer 
gas, even should the trap become entirely dry through 
evaporation. The ball is balanced in such a way that it 
does not require much force of water to lift it from its 
seat to allow the waste water to pass out ; and after 
the water in the trap comes to rest the ball falls down 
to its seat again, as shown in the cut. It is also claimed 
that the water cannot be as easily evaporated from this 
trap as other makes, as the ball seals the lower section, 
which contains a large body of water. 

In Fig. 117 is shown the plain pressed lead trap. 
With this style of trap it will be necessary for the plumb- 
er to furnish and solder in his own trap screw, a thing 
which many plumbers desire to do themselves ; but, as 
a rule, such work is much neater done in the factory 
where the traps are made. 

In Fig. 1 18 is shown the same pressed lead trap com- 
plete, with trap screw and brass back-vent coupling, 
which may be purchased from the manufacturer, as 
shown. 

The '^ Star Trap," as shown in Fig. 119, is a cast-lead 
trap with vent openings, and having at the bottom a 



290 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 










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SANITARY PLUMBING 



291 







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ffl 


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292 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

section of hard metal to which the trap screw is attached. 
This is to make the bottom strong, which, as a rule, is a 
weak place in many makes of lead traps. 

Still another style of the " Star Trap " is shown in 
Fig. I20. This is not intended to be ventilated, although 
it can be if necessary, the large body on the outlet side 
holding sufificient water to at all times form a seal, even 
though syphonage takes place in its waste pipe. 

There are many more styles of traps made besides 
those shown in this book, but the limited space will not 
allow me to show them in this edition. 

EARTHENWARE USED IN PLUMBING FIXTURES. 

Quite an important thing for the plumber to know is 
that earthenware is not all the same quality, and it 
requires considerable experience and contact with such 
goods to be able to tell a good quality from that of 
the cheap and common grades ; therefore the plumber 
should be careful in buying earthenware. I consider 
that there is no material used in connection with plumb- 
ing fixtures where the very best grade or quality is more 
necessary than in the parts of such fixtures that are 
composed of crockeryware. My advice to the plumber 
in regard to this matter would be to never buy nor use 
cheap or low grade crockeryware. It will not only be 
the best for his customer, but best and cheapest in the 
end for the plumber. 

Earthenware that will craze should not be used in 



SANITARY PLUMBING 293 

plumbing fixtures. The meaning of crazed earthenware 
is, that in a very short time after being in use, and often'' 
without being used at all, cheap earthenware becomes 
filled with small cracks all over the surface, both inside 
and outside of the article, whatever it might be, wheth- 
er a washbasin, a watercloset, a urinal, or anything else. 
These small cracks appear to simply pass through the 
glazed finish of the crockery only, but they really go 
further than that. Such a piece of earthenware does 
not leak from being crazed, but it breaks quite easily 
and becomes rotten and falls to pieces ; besides, it is at 
all times an unsanitary article, for the reason that it 
absorbs moisture and dirt, and becomes quite foul after 
very little use. The plumber should buy only such 
earthenware as can be guaranteed to him not to craze 
by the manufacturer. 

SETTING WASHBASINS TO MARBLE SLABS. 

A piece of plumbing work which requires experience, 
good judgment, and taste is the setting of earthenware 
washbasins to marble slabs ; and although it may look 
like an easy matter, no person can do this work well 
unless he has had considerable experience. In setting 
washbasins to marble slabs there are several things to 
be considered, and to accomplish these several things in a 
satisfactory manner there must be some nice calculations 
made. To have a washbasin properly fitted to a marble 
slab it will be necessary to grind the flange of the basin 



294 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

SO that it will lay level on the slab. This is done by- 
rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the basin on a 
flat stone, having sand and water on the stone, until 
the top edge of the basin is perfectly flat and level ; 
this is called grinding the basins. This grinding action 
also takes off the glazed surface and allows the plaster- 
of-Paris to take hold of the crockeryware and make a 
more perfect joint. The basin must be set perfectly 
even all around with the hole in the slab. To do this 
properly it is simply necessary to use a compass, and 
run a line all around extending out from the edge of 
the hole about one-quarter of an inch further than the 
flange of the basin would extend. This line on the 
back of the slab will be a guide to place the basin 
exactly right in its proper position. The less plaster 
used in setting basins the better. It is always a poor 
job that has to be filled up with large amounts of plas- 
ter. To get the position of the holes for the basin 
clamps, it will be necessary to mark on the back of the 
slab the exact position of the edge of the basin ; then 
space off the distance and drill the slab for at least four 
clamps. In drilling the slab for the clamp holes the 
polished surface of the slab must rest on the floor, and 
in order not to scratch or injure it the slab should have 
under it a bed of some soft and clean material, such as 
paper bagging or fine shavings. The clamps should be 
well calked into the slab with melted lead, and made so 
that they could not shake nor pull out. The clamps 



SANITARY PLUMBING 295 

being calked in and the basin ground, the next oper- 
ation will be to wet the slab so that it will absorb some 
water, also wet the flange of the basin ; then mix a 
small amount of plaster-of-Paris quite thin, and pour it 
on the edge of the slab the distance which will be cov- 
ered by the flange of the basin ; next, and quickly, put a 
little of the thin plaster on the edge of the basin ; then 
press the basin to the slab, lightly at first, until it is moved 
to its proper position ; then press tight with the hands, 
and before the plaster sets, and as quickly as possible, 
screw down the clamps carefully all around as evenly to- 
gether as possible, so that there will be an even pressure 
all around the flange. Care must be taken at this point 
not to break the flange by too much pressure from the 
nut of the clamp. As soon as the clamps are screwed 
in place the loose plaster should be cleaned off from 
both sides of the basin, and have it cleaned before the 
plaster is set. The basin faucets can also be set into 
the slab at the same time, or they may be left and done 
separately. Basin cocks should also be set in the slab 
with plaster and made perfectly solid. 

AUTOMATIC CELLAR DRAINER. 

In the last few years we have had added to the long 
list of plumbing and sanitary devices many new and 
better arrangements of doing certain work and produc- 
ing better results, and among them might be mentioned 
the Automatic Cellar Drainer. This is a machine that 



296 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

has found a permanent place, and has come to stay. 
The plumber is supposed to know all about it, and there 
are very few who are not called upon to occasionally set 
this machine. The Automatic Cellar Drainer can be 
used to great advantage in many places to improve the 
sanitary conditions of houses and buildings situated in 
wet soil and where surface water finds its way to cellars. 
The special feature about the cellar drainer is, that it 
will lift and discharge water several feet high by the use 
of the house supply water as the motive power ; and 
not only do this, but do it automatically, without the 
attention of any person. Therefore it is a most com- 
plete machine, and besides being a great sanitary im- 
provement, it is a great saver of labor. 

There are many makes and styles of cellar drainers in 
the market and which differ in construction, but all use 
the same general principle of lifting the water by the 
action of the jet ejector. 

In Fig. 121 is shown the Lawler Automatic Cellar 
Drainer. It requires but little more room than a space 
large enough for the ball to rise and fall in. Its work- 
ing parts are made of steam metal, and the float is of 
spun brass, electroplated with copper after all its joints 
are made. It is made with a view to employing either 
steam or water as a lifting power, and will operate on 
as little as ten pounds pressure ; but the quantity of the 
water moved and the height to which it can be elevated 
depend entirely upon the pressure of the water or steam. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



297 



During a test made at the office of the company, less 
than half a gallon of water was found to put the ejector 
in operation when set practically under the same condi- 
tions as it would be in ordinary practice, and with a 




Fig. 121. — The Lawler Automatic Cellar Drainer. 



light pressure such as prevails in the downtown portion 
of New York City ; approximately, the same amount of 
water as was placed in the pit was delivered through the 
discharge pipe. The float operates by simple leverage a 
valve which closes with the pressure. The fulcrum of the 



298 LAWLER's AMERICAN 

lever is very close to the stem of the valve, and less than 
two inches rise of the ball is necessary. The float is a 
hollow sphere, through which is passed a pipe somewhat 
larger than the discharge pipe, and which is brazed to 
the float at each end, the lower end having projecting 
ears on the end, which pivot to the fork of the lever. 
The float travels up and down over the discharge pipe, 
which screws into the inlet-strainer, indicated by arrows 
in the cut. The inlet-strainer in turn attaches firmly 
to the base of the machine by means of a screw joint. 
The lever is not pivoted to the valve stem, and the slot 
in the valve stem head extends above the top edge of 
the lever bar sufficiently to allow the valve to open full 
the moment it is unseated by the ball rising and press- 
ing the stem down enough to permit the water to pass, 
and complete the opening of the valve by wedging 
down. Under the valve stem is a plug screwing into 
the valve cavity, which is removed when a new pressure- 
washer needs to be put on. The inlet-strainer, or suction 
passage to the ejector, is far enough above the base-plate 
of the machine to prevent sediment in the pit from 
interfering with it. The supply pipe is fitted with a 
combination sediment chamber and conical strainer, the 
strainer being finely perforated to protect the valve, 
and the sediment chamber fitted with a plug, which can 
be removed to cleanse it. This machine is made in 
three sizes, requiring from J^-inch to i-inch supply, and 
having a lifting capacity ranging from loo to 1,500 gal- 



SANITARY PLUMBING 299 

Ions per hour, according to the size of the machine, 
water pressure, and height to which the bilge water is 
elevated. 

Fig. 122 shows an application of the cellar drainer, in 
which, as shown, it is placed in a depression in the cold- 
air box of a heating apparatus. 

FREEZING LEAD PIPES TO MAKE REPAIRS. 

Although the freezing of water pipes in houses is the 
cause of great trouble and expense, it is also utilized at 
times to advantage. There are very few plumbers who 
have not been called upon from time to time to make 
repairs in supply pipes where there was no stop-cock to 
shut off the water, without perhaps having to dig down 
to the corporation stop-cock in the street. And in such 
cases the water can be stopped from running by freez- 
ing, and save the expense and inconvenience of digging 
up the street. It frequently happens that the house 
stop-cock leaks and allows the water to pass through 
the pipe while shut off. In such cases, if the leak is 
quite small, the pipe can be drained through a nail hole 
which may be made in the lead pipe. And after the 
repairs have been made the nail hole can be stopped 
up again with a small square white pine plug carefully 
driven in, and cut off close to the pipe. A hammer and 
chisel is then used to draw the lead over the plug from 
both sides of the plug, thus holding the plug from 
being blown out by the pressure of water. If the leak 



300 



LAWLER'S AMERICAN 




Fig. 122. 



SANITARY PLUMBING BOl 

in the stop-cock is too much to be drained through a 
small nail hole, the freezing process will have to be 
resorted to. 

It is a simple and good plan, and can be done by any 
person. Suppose we desire to wipe in a new stop-cock 
in place of the old one that leaks. The first thing to 
do will be to clear off 4 or 5 feet of the pipe ; that is, if 
the pipe is covered with earth in the ground, clear 
away the earth from about 5 feet around the pipe ; 
then flatten the pipe on the outside of the old stop- 
cock so that the water will be entirely shut off ; then 
place around the pipe for a distance of about i foot in 
length cracked ice, using about a cupful of rock-salt 
mixed with the ice. Carefully bed the ice and salt to 
the pipe, and cover it over with a woolen rag of any 
kind so as to keep out the air. This will freeze the 
water solid in the ^ or i-inch pipe in from a half to 
three-quarters of an hour ; and while waiting for the 
pipe to freeze the plumber must prepare and wipe on 
a short piece of pipe to the inside end of the new stop- 
cock, in order to have it the full length to fill the place 
of the old stop-cock, and also a short piece of pipe hav- 
ing been flattened, which are to be cut out. 

By the time this is done the pipe will be frozen hard 
enough to cut out the piece. But before cutting off 
the old pipe drive a small hole into it with a small nail, 
such as a lath nail. This will prove whether or not the 
pipe is frozen. If the water does not flow through the 



302 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

Open nail hole, it will be safe to cut out the old stop 
cock and wipe in the new one. In handling the end of 
the pipe while cleaning it for the wipe joint, have it held 
as solidly as possible, for the reason that in bending this 
end of the pipe it often cracks the ice on the inside, 
which becomes loose and allows the water to run again. 
During the operation of cleaning the end of the pipe 
and wiping the joint allow the ice and salt to remain on 
the pipe. The joint must be wiped quickly, so that the 
heat from the hot metal will not have time to radiate 
far enough along the pipe to melt the ice. x^fter the 
joint is made, the ice is taken from around the pipe 
and a little hot water applied, which thaws the pipe out 
again, 

HOW TO LOCATE LEAKS IN WATER PIPES UNDER 
THE GROUND. 

A quite important thing for the plumber to know is 
how to quickly and at little expense locate a leak in a 
water pipe under the ground. This is a place where 
the plumber of experience can and does save a great 
many dollars for his customer ; while the inexperienced 
plumber having such work in hand often makes great 
expense and trouble. 

In sandy ground we often have leaks in the service 
pipe that never show on the surface, neither by the ap- 
pearance of the water or settlement of the earth. In 
such cases we locate the leak by sound. The plumber 



SANITARY PLUMBING 303 

who has had experience with such cases can often tell 
within a foot the location of a leak. It may be neces- 
sary to dig two or three holes along the line of such 
pipe before the leak will be discovered. But with the 
plumber who understands his business it is never neces- 
sary to dig and uncover the pipe along the entire dis- 
tance until the leak is reached. 

In Fig. 123 is a sketch of how the service pipe appears 
having a leak along the line, and when located in sandy 
ground the water from the leak often soaks down as 
shown, and never appears on the surface. 

The house pressure is often reduced from such leaks 
in the service pipes, and the trouble is often laid to dirt 
or a partial stoppage of the pipe, while the exact 
trouble and cause can be detected at once by the 
plumber who understands his business. 

HOW TO TELL WHETHER THE SERVICE PIPE IS 
PARTLY CLOSED OR LEAKING. 

In places where the water ceases to flow as freely as it 
formally did from the service pipe there must be some- 
thing wrong. And if there has been no radical changes 
made in the water supply system of the town or city 
the trouble will then be in the service pipe. 

If the trouble comes from a stoppage, it can be told 
in one minute by simply closing all faucets except one, 
and holding the thumb or finger over the opening of this 
one, noticing at the time how much pressure it requires 



304 



LAWLERS AMERICAN 







SANITARY PLUMBING 306 

to hold the water in the faucet. If the pipe is not leak- 
ing but partly closed, the pressure will show after the 
pipes throughout the house have become entirely filled, 
and where there is from 20 pounds pressure and upwards 
to the square inch it cannot be held tight with the 
hand. 

If we cannot hold the water in the pipe by the press- 
ure of the fingers over the open faucet, we will know 
that the service pipe is partly clogged. To clear the 
service pipe from such stoppages, it will be necessary to 
pump water into the service pipe by a good strong force- 
pump, which will loosen the matter which is clogged in 
the pipe, and force it back to the main pipe in the 
street. 

SERVICE PIPE CLOGGED BY FISH. 

Small fish often find their way into the service pipe 
of a house, and are often the cause of stopping the pipe. 
An expert plumber can tell by the smell of the water, 
and also the taste of it, when fish are in the pipe. He 
will therefore know at once the cause of such partial 
stoppage of the flow of water. 

SOFT STICKY SUBSTANCE THE WORST TO CLEAR 
FROM THE SERVICE PIPE. 

Worse than fish or hard substances to clear from the 
water pipe is the soft slimy lining of clay matter, for 
the reason that it adheres to the walls of the pipe, no 



306 LAWLER'S AMERICAN 

matter how smooth the pipe may be, and it continues 
to accumulate until it entirely closes the opening in the 
pipe and prevents the water from passing through. In 
stoppages of this kind a force-pump is not of much use, 
as this slimy substance is quite flexible, and under a 
heavy pressure can be compressed and allow the open- 
ing in the pipe to be enlarged, and when relieved of the 
heavy pressure, such as a force-pump might exert on it, 
the slimy lining would close up the opening again. 

HOW TO CLEAN THE SLIME FROM THE SERVICE PIPE. 

This lining of clay matter can be removed from the 
walls of the pipe by vibration. To shock the pipe so 
that it will vibrate, it is only necessary to open and 
close some stop cock on the line of service pipe quickly. 
Open some faucet on the lower floor or in the cellar of 
the house, and allow the water to run with whatever 
flow it may have, then quickly close the stop cock for 
about five seconds, then open it again just as quickly, and 
after the flow of water is fairly started again repeat the 
operation of closing and opening the stop cock until the 
pipe is cleared. This action of suddenly stopping and 
starting the flow of water in the pipe will cause the pipe 
to vibrate its entire distance, and has the effect of loos- 
ening the slimy lining from its walls and at the same 
time carries it out through the opening faucet. This is 
a cheap way to'clean water pipes when closed under such 
circumstances, as it can often be done in a few minutes, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 307 

while to dig up and cut the pipe open for the purpose 
of clearing the stoppage would take considerable time 
and other expense. 

This plan of cleaning water pipe by vibrations is held 
by many plumbers as a secret of the trade, and I con- 
sider it is a good one. 



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ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT MAKING 

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